Process Technology : An Introduction

The book provides a general overview about process technology. It focuses on the structure and development of production processes, main technological operations and some important aspects of process economics. For the technological operations the authors emphasize operating principles, reasons for application and available industrial equipment. Design calculations are kept to a necessary minimum and well explained. Provides a combination of theory supplemented by even more examples and case studies. Cover Half Title Also of Interest Process Technology: An Introduction Copyright Preface Contents 1. The chemical industry 1.1 Introduction 1.2 General characteristics of the chemical industry segments 1.3 Major raw materials 1.4 Production structure of the chemical industry 2. The structure of chemical and biochemical process systems 2.1 Structure of chemical and biochemical processes 2.2 Characteristics of production processes 2.2.1 Batch production technology 2.2.2 Continuous processes 2.3 Unit operations 2.3.1 Reactors 2.3.2 Recovery, purification and fractionation technologies 2.3.3 Product finishing operations 2.3.4 Other important process units 2.4 Process synthesis 3. Principles of chemical reaction engineering 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classification of reactions 3.3 Rate of chemical reactions 3.3.1 Effect of concentration 3.3.2 Effect of temperature 3.3.3 Chemical equilibria 3.4 Catalysis 3.4.1 Homogeneous catalysis 3.4.2 Heterogeneous catalysis 3.5 Conversion, selectivity and yield 3.5.1 Conversion 3.5.2 Selectivity and yield 3.5.3 Multistep reactions 3.5.3.1 Parallel reactions 3.5.3.2 Reactions in series 3.6 Basic design equations for model reactors 3.6.1 Molar balances 3.6.2 The ideal batch reactor 3.6.3 The continuous ideal stirred tank reactor 3.6.4 Ideal continuous plug flow reactor 3.6.5 Cascade of continuous ideal stirred tanks reactors 3.7 Heat effects in model reactors 3.7.1 General heat balance 3.7.2 Heat balance in a continuous ideal stirred tank reactor 3.7.3 Heat balance in a batch reactor Nomenclature Indices 4. Chemical reactors and their industrial applications 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Classification of reactors 4.1.2 Influence of heat of reaction on reactor type 4.2 Stirred tank reactors 4.2.1 Description 4.2.2 Batch stirred tank reactors 4.2.3 Continuous stirred tanks 4.2.4 Cascade of stirred tanks 4.3 Tubular reactors 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Gas-phase reactors 4.3.3 Liquid-phase reactors 4.4 Loop reactors 4.4.1 Continuous loop reactors 4.4.2 Buss loop reactor 4.5 Bubble columns 4.6 Fixed and moving bed reactors 4.6.1 Fixed bed reactors 4.6.2 Adiabatic fixed bed reactors 4.6.3 Fixed bed reactors with supply or removal of heat 4.6.4 Moving bed reactors 4.7 Fluidized bed reactors 4.7.1 The fluidization principle 4.7.2 Fluidization properties of typical bed solids 4.7.3 Applications 4.8 Electrochemical reactors 4.8.1 Basic elements of an electrochemical reactor 4.8.2 Design of an electrochemical reactor 4.8.3 Applications 5. Biochemical reaction technology 5.1 Characteristics of biochemical processes 5.1.1 Fermentation 5.1.1.1 Fermentation products 5.1.1.2 Microorganisms 5.1.1.3 Requirements of fermenters 5.1.2 Enzymatic conversions 5.1.2.1 Industrial applications 5.1.2.2 Distinctive features of enzymes 5.1.2.3 Enzymatic catalysis 5.2 Biochemical reaction engineering 5.2.1 Principles 5.2.2 Kinetics of biochemical reactions 5.2.2.1 Microbiological processes 5.2.2.2 Enzyme catalyzed reactions 5.2.2.3 Environmental effects 5.2.2.4 Inhibition 5.2.3 Basic reactor operations 5.3 Industrial bioreactors 5.3.1 Classification 5.3.2 Bioreactors with mechanical mixing 5.3.3 Bioreactors with pneumatic mixing 5.3.3.1 Bubble column reactors 5.3.3.2 Airlift reactors 5.3.4 Bioreactors for immobilized enzymes and cells Nomenclature Indices 6. Evaporative separations 6.1 Evaporative separation 6.1.1 Introduction 6.1.2 Vapor–liquid equilibria 6.1.3 Separation by single-stage partial evaporation 6.2 Multistage distillation 6.2.1 Distillation cascades 6.2.2 Column distillation 6.2.3 Feasible distillation conditions 6.2.4 Basic design calculations 6.2.5 Energy requirements 6.2.6 Batch distillation 6.2.7 Continuous separation of multiple products 6.2.8 Enhanced distillation techniques 6.3 Distillation equipment 6.3.1 Basic functions 6.3.2 Tray columns 6.3.3 Packed columns 6.3.4 Criteria for column selection 6.4 Polymer devolatilization 6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Basic mechanisms 6.4.3 Multistage operation and devolatilization aids 6.4.4 Devolatilization equipment Nomenclature 7. Extraction and leaching 7.1 Liquid-liquid extraction 7.1.1 Introduction 7.1.2 Liquid-liquid equilibria 7.1.3 Solvent selection 7.1.4 Extraction schemes 7.2 Industrial liquid-liquid extractors 7.2.1 Mixer settlers 7.2.2 Mechanically agitated columns 7.2.3 Unagitated and pulsed columns 7.2.4 Centrifugal extractors 7.2.5 Selection of an extractor 7.3 Leaching 7.3.1 Mechanism and process of leaching 7.3.2 Solid-liquid extractors 7.4 Supercritical extraction 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Properties of supercritical fluids 7.4.3 Processes and applications Nomenclature Indices 8. Absorption and stripping 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The aim of absorption 8.3 General design approach 8.3.1 Gas solubilities 8.3.2 Minimum absorbent flow 8.3.3 Number of equilibrium stages 8.4 Basic characteristics of absorbers 8.5 Industrial contactors 8.5.1 Packed columns 8.5.2 Tray columns 8.5.3 Spray towers 8.5.4 Bubble columns Nomenclature Indices 9. Adsorption and ion exchange 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Adsorption fundamentals 9.2.1 Industrial adsorbents 9.2.2 Adsorption equilibrium 9.2.3 Adsorption kinetics 9.2.4 Fixed bed adsorption 9.3 Basic adsorption cycles 9.3.1 Temperature swing 9.3.2 Pressure swing 9.3.3 Inert and displacement purge cycles 9.4 Principles of ion exchange 9.4.1 Ion exchange resins 9.4.2 Equilibria and selectivity 9.5 Ion exchange processes Nomenclature Indices 10. Solid-liquid separation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Gravity sedimentation 10.2.1 Sedimentation mechanisms 10.2.2 Rate of sedimentation 10.2.3 Design of continuous sedimentation tanks 10.2.4 Gravity sedimentation equipment 10.3 Centrifugal sedimentation 10.3.1 Particle velocity in a centrifugal field 10.3.2 Sedimenting centrifuges 10.3.3 Bowl centrifuge separation capability 10.3.4 Hydrocyclones 10.4 Filtration fundamentals 10.4.1 Flow through packed beds 10.4.2 Cake filtration 10.4.3 Constant pressure and constant rate filtration 10.5 Filtration equipment 10.5.1 Continuous large-scale vacuum filters 10.5.2 Batch vacuum filters 10.5.3 Pressure filters 10.6 Filter media 10.7 Centrifugal filtration 10.8 Deep bed filtration Nomenclature 11. Particle removal from gases 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Collecting efficiency 11.1.1 Separation mechanisms 11.3 Gravitational separators 11.4 Cyclones 11.5 Electrostatic precipitation 11.5.1 Principles 11.5.2 Equipment and collecting efficiency 11.6 Particle interception mechanisms 11.7 Dry impingement separators 11.7.1 Deep bed filtration 11.7.2 Surface filters 11.7.3 Lamellar plate separators 11.8 Wet scrubbers Nomenclature 12. Membrane separations 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Principles 12.2.1 Membranes 12.2.2 Modules 12.2.3 Flux, permeability and selectivity 12.2.4 Concentration polarization and fouling 12.2.5 System design and cascades 12.3 Membrane filtration processes 12.3.1 Microfiltration 12.3.2 Ultrafiltration 12.3.3 Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration 12.4 Solubility-driven processes 12.4.1 Gas and vapor permeation 12.4.2 Pervaporation 12.5 Electrodialysis Nomenclature 13. Crystallization and precipitation 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Fundamentals 13.2.1 Solid-Liquid equilibria 13.2.2 Supersaturation and metastability 13.2.3 Nucleation 13.2.4 Crystal growth 13.2.5 Effects of impurities 13.3 Crystal characteristics 13.3.1 Morphology 13.3.2 Crystal size distribution 13.3.3 Size control 13.4 Types of solution crystallizers 13.4.1 Basic operations 13.4.2 Cooling crystallizers 13.4.3 Evaporating and vacuum crystallizers 13.4.4 Continuous crystallizers 13.5 Crystallizer modeling and design 13.5.1 Basic yield calculations 13.5.2 Population balances 13.5.3 The well-mixed MSMPR crystallizer 13.6 Precipitation 13.7 Melt crystallization Nomenclature 14. Solids finishing technologies 14.1 Overview 14.2 Drying 14.2.1 Classification of drying operations 14.2.2 Drying mechanisms 14.2.3 Direct heat dryers 14.2.3.1 Batch compartment dryers 14.2.3.2 Belt dryers 14.2.3.3 Rotary dryers 14.2.3.4 Flash dryers 14.2.3.5 Fluidized bed dryers 14.2.3.6 Spray dryers 14.2.4 Contact dryers 14.2.4.1 Rotary and agitator dryers 14.2.4.2 Vacuum dryers 14.2.4.3 Fluidized bed dryers 14.2.5 Other drying methods 14.3 Size reduction 14.3.1 Particle breakage 14.3.2 Methods and selection criteria for size reduction 14.3.3 Size reduction equipment 14.3.3.1 Crushers 14.3.3.2 Grinding media mills 14.3.3.3 Roller and rod mills 14.3.3.4 Jet and impact mills 14.3.3.5 Cutting mills 14.4 Size enlargement 14.4.1 Agglomeration principles 14.4.2 Methods of size enlargement 14.4.3 Growth/tumble agglomeration 14.4.4 Pressure agglomeration 14.4.5 Other agglomeration techniques 14.5 Conveying 14.5.1 Transportation systems 14.5.2 Mechanical conveyors 14.5.2.1 Belt conveyors 14.5.2.2 Chain conveyors 14.5.2.3 Screw conveyors 14.5.2.4 Vibrating conveyors 14.5.2.5 Bucket elevators 14.5.3 Pneumatic conveying 14.5.3.1 Classifications 14.5.3.2 Pneumatic conveying systems Nomenclature 15. Product technology 15.1 Cheese-coating technology 15.1.1 Cheese production 15.1.2 Coatings 15.1.3 Application techniques 15.1.3.1 Dip and brush coating 15.1.3.2 Spraying (atomization) 15.1.3.3 Drying 15.1.3.4 Film formation 15.2 Enzyme formulation 15.2.1 Introduction 15.2.2 Glucose isomerase immobilization 15.2.3 Detergent enzymes 15.2.4 Application research 15.3 Compounding 15.3.1 Introduction 15.3.2 Compound formulation 15.3.3 Additives 15.3.3.1 Protective additives 15.3.3.2 Processing aids 15.3.3.3 Property modifiers 15.3.4 Polymer mixing mechanisms 15.3.4.1 Distributive mixing 15.3.4.2 Dispersive mixing 15.3.5 Compounding equipment 15.4 Polymer processing 15.4.1 Extrusion processes 15.4.2 Injection and blow molding 15.4.3 Melt and gel spinning 15.4.4 Film production techniques 15.4.5 Thermoforming 15.4.6 Foam extrusion Nomenclature 16. Development, scale-up and engineering 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 General aspects of scaling up 16.1.2 Ways of scaling up 16.2 Development and scale-up in the bulk chemical industry 16.2.1 Basic course of process development 16.2.2 Laboratory and bench scale research 16.2.3 Pilot plant research and demonstration plants 16.2.4 Feasibility evaluation 16.3 Engineering and construction 16.3.1 Introduction 16.3.2 Conceptual engineering 16.3.3 Basic engineering 16.3.4 Detailed engineering, procurement and construction 16.4 Development and scale-up of fine chemical processes 16.4.1 Differences between bulk and fine chemical industry 16.4.2 Fine chemical process development 16.4.3 Scale-Up challenges in multipurpose plants 16.4.4 Future developments Nomenclature 17. Hydrodynamic aspects of scale-up 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Hydrodynamic flows in process equipment 17.2.1 Single-phase flows 17.2.2 Multiphase flows 17.2.3 Flows in mixers and stirrers 17.2.3.1 Macromixing and micromixing 17.2.3.2 Mechanically agitated vessels 17.2.3.3 Static mixers 17.2.3.4 Mixing of single-phase systems 17.2.3.5 Mixing of multiphase systems 17.2.4 Flows in bubble columns 17.2.5 Flows in fluidized beds 17.3 Scale-up 17.3.1 Dimensional, similarity and regime analysis 17.3.2 Important dimensionless numbers for mixing vessels 17.3.3 Important dimensionless numbers for bubble columns 17.3.4 Important dimensionless numbers for fluidized beds 17.4 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 17.4.1 Types of CFD simulations 17.4.1.1 CFD for single-phase flows 17.4.1.2 CFD for dispersed multiphase flows 17.4.2 Basic principles of CFD 17.4.2.1 The preprocessor 17.4.2.2 The solver 17.4.2.3 The postprocessor 17.4.3 Applications Nomenclature 18. Process safety 18.1 Safety problems in chemical plants 18.2 Development, design and construction of safe plants 18.2.1 Introduction 18.2.2 Safety assessment 18.2.3 Structure of safety studies 18.3 Identification of hazardous properties of substances 18.3.1 Pure components 18.3.2 Exothermic chemical reactions 18.4 Inherently safer plant design 18.4.1 The concept and its benefits 18.4.2 The road to friendlier plants 18.4.2.1 Intensification or minimization 18.4.2.2 Substitution 18.4.2.3 Attenuation 18.4.2.4 Simplify Nomenclature A. Base chemicals A.1 Ammonia A.1.1 General description A.1.2 Desulfurization A.1.3 Primary and secondary reforming A.1.4 Shift conversion A.1.5 Carbon dioxide removal A.1.6 Final purification A.1.7 Ammonia syntheses and recovery A.2 Inorganic acids A.2.1 Nitric acid A.2.2 Sulfuric acid A.3 Ammonia-based products A.3.1 Caprolactam A.3.1.1 Oxime formation A.3.1.2 Beckham rearrangement process A.3.2 Acrylonitrile A.3.3 Urea A.3.4 Melamine A.4 Naphtha cracking A.4.1 Basic principles A.4.2 Hot section A.4.3 Cold section A.4.4 Coke formation A.5 Oxidation processes A.5.1 Toluene oxidation A.5.2 Cyclohexane oxidation A.5.3 n-Butane oxidation A.6 Fischer-Tropsch A.6.1 Synthesis gas production A.6.1.1 Coal gasification A.6.1.2 Gas purification A.6.2 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis A.6.2.1 Principles A.6.2.2 Classical reactors A.6.2.2.1 Low-temperature fixed bed reactors (Arge) A.6.2.2.2 High-temperature synthol reactors A.6.2.3 Advanced reactor designs A.6.2.3.1 Slurry-phase reactors A.6.2.3.2 Advanced synthol reactor A.6.2.4 Product selectivities A.7 Industrial electrochemical processes A.7.1 Chlorine gas production A.7.2 Hydrogen peroxide production A.7.3 Adiponitrile production B. Polymer manufacturing B.1 Polyethylene B.1.1 High-pressure process B.1.2 Solution polymerization B.1.3 Slurry process B.1.4 Gas-phase process B.2 Polypropylene B.2.1 Gas-phase process B.2.2 Slurry process B.2.2.1 Catalyst preparation B.2.2.2 Polymerization B.2.2.3 Phase separation and drying B.2.2.4 Compounding and pelletizing B.2.2.5 Solvent recovery B.3 EPDM B.4 Polyamides B.4.1 Introduction B.4.2 Nylon 6 B.4.3 Nylon 4,6 B.5 Saturated and unsaturated polyesters B.5.1 Saturated polyesters B.5.2 Unsaturated polyesters B.5.3 Powder coatings C. Life science products C.1 Benzaldehyde-based products C.1.1 Amino acids C.1.2 Cinnamon aldehyde and cinnamyl alcohol C.1.3 Benzyl alcohol C.2 α-Picoline C.3 Aspartame C.4 Penicillin C.5 Synthetic antibiotics C.5.1 Introduction C.5.2 Cephalosporins C.5.3 Amoxillins C.6 Glyoxylic acid C.7 Food additives C.7.1 Quinine C.7.2 Enzymes References and further reading General Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Appendices Index