Process Technology : an Introduction

TU Eindhoven: best MSc lecturer 2014 __Process Technology__ provides a general overview about chemical and biochemical process technology. It focuses on the structure and development of production processes, main technological operations and the important aspects of process economics. The theoretical foundations in each chapter are supplemented by case studies and examples in a clear and instructive manner to illustrate the practical aspects. The author highlights operating principles, reasons for application and available industrial equipment of technological operations. Aim is to facilitate those without a process technology background in multi-disciplinary cooperation with (bio-) chemical engineers by providing an overview of this exciting field. The textbook is organized into seven distinct parts: Structure of the chemical industry and (bio-) chemical processes (Bio-) Chemical reaction engineering Molecular separations (distillation, extraction, absorption, adsorption) Mechanical separations (filtration, sedimentation, membranes) Particle and final product manufacturing Development, scale-up, design and safety of processes Major industrial process descriptions * Design calculations are kept to a necessary minimum and well explained. * Provides a combination of theory supplemented by examples and case studies . Preface Contentsv 1 The chemical industry 1.1 Introduction 1.2 General characteristics of the chemical industry segments 1.3 Major raw materials 1.4 Production structure of the chemical industry 2 The structure of chemical and biochemical process systems 2.1 Structure of chemical and biochemical processes 2.2 Characteristics of production processes 2.2.1 Batch production technology 2.2.2 Continuous processes 2.3 Unit operations 2.3.1 Reactors 2.3.2 Recovery, purification, and fractionation technologies 2.3.3 Product finishing operations 2.3.4 Other important process units 2.4 Process synthesis 3 Principles of chemical reaction engineering 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classification of reactions 3.3 Rate of chemical reactions 3.3.1 Effect of concentration 3.3.2 Effect of temperature 3.3.3 Chemical equilibria 3.4 Catalysis 3.4.1 Homogeneous catalysis 3.4.2 Heterogeneous catalysis 3.5 Conversion, selectivtity, and yield 3.5.1 The degree of conversion 3.5.2 Selectivity and yield 3.5.3 Multiple reactions 3.6 Basic design equations for model reactors 3.6.1 Material balances 3.6.2 The ideal batch reactor 3.6.3 The continuous ideal stirred tank reactor (CISTR) 3.6.4 Ideal continuous tubular reactor 3.6.5 Cascade of continuous ideal stirred tanks reactors 3.7 Heat effects in model reactors 3.7.1 Energy balances 3.7.2 Characteristics of a continuous stirred tank reactor 3.7.3 Batch reactors 4 Chemical reactors and their industrial applications 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Classification of reactors 4.1.2 Influence of the heat of reaction on the reactor type 4.2 Stirred tank reactors 4.2.1 Description 4.2.2 Batch stirred tank reactors 4.2.3 Continuously-stirred tanks 4.2.4 Cascade of stirred tanks 4.3 Tubular reactors 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.2 Gas-phase reactors 4.3.3 Liquid-phase reactors 4.4 Loop reactors 4.4.1 Continuous loop reactors 4.4.2 Buss loop reactor 4.5 Bubble columns 4.6 Fixed and moving bed reactors 4.6.1 Fixed bed reactors 4.6.2 Adiabatic fixed bed reactors 4.6.3 Fixed bed reactors with supply or removal of heat 4.6.4 Moving bed reactors 4.7 Fluidized bed reactors 4.7.1 The fluidization principle 4.7.2 Fluidization properties of typical bed solids 4.7.3 Applications 5 Biochemical reaction technology 5.1 Characteristics of biochemical processes 5.1.1 Fermentation 5.1.2 Enzymatic conversions 5.2 Biochemical reaction engineering 5.2.1 Principles 5.2.2 Kinetics of biochemical reactions 5.2.3 Basic reactor operations 5.3 Industrial bioreactors 5.3.1 Classification 5.3.2 Bioreactors with mechanical mixing 5.3.3 Bioreactors with pneumatic mixing 5.3.4 Bioreactors for immobilized enzymes and cells 6 Evaporative separations 6.1 Evaporative separation 6.1.1 Introduction 6.1.2 Vapor-liquid equilibria 6.1.3 Separation by single-stage partial evaporation 6.2 Multistage distillation 6.2.1 Distillation cascades 6.2.2 Column distillation 6.2.3 Feasible distillation conditions 6.2.4 Basic design calculations 6.2.5 Energy requirements 6.2.6 Batch distillation 6.2.7 Continuous separation of multiple products 6.2.8 Enhanced distillation techniques 6.3 Distillation equipment 6.3.1 Basic functions 6.3.2 Tray columns 6.3.3 Packed columns 6.3.4 Criteria for column selection 6.4 Polymer devolatilization 6.4.1 Introduction 6.4.2 Basic mechanisms 6.4.3 Multistage operation and devolatilization aids 6.4.4 Devolatilization equipment 7 Extraction and leaching 7.1 Liquid-liquid extraction 7.1.1 Introduction 7.1.2 Liquid-liquid equilibria 7.1.3 Solvent selection 7.1.4 Extraction schemes 7.2 Industrial liquid-liquid extractors 7.2.1 Mixer-settlers 7.2.2 Mechanically agitated columns 7.2.3 Unagitated and pulsed columns 7.2.4 Centrifugal extractors 7.2.5 Selection of an extractor 7.3 Leaching 7.3.1 Mechanism and process of leaching 7.3.2 Solid-liquid extractors 7.4 Supercritical extraction 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Properties of supercritical fluids 7.4.3 Processes and applications 8 Absorption and stripping 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The aim of absorption 8.3 General design approach 8.3.1 Gas solubilities 8.3.2 Minimum absorbent flow 8.3.3 Number of equilibrium stages 8.4 Basic characteristics of absorbers 8.5 Industrial contactors 8.5.1 Packed columns 8.5.2 Tray columns 8.5.3 Spray towers 8.5.4 Bubble columns 9 Adsorption and ion exchange 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Adsorption fundamentals 9.2.1 Industrial adsorbents 9.2.2 Adsorption equilibrium 9.2.3 Adsorption kinetics 9.2.4 Fixed-bed adsorption 9.3 Basic adsorption cycles 9.3.1 Temperature swing 9.3.2 Pressure swing 9.3.3 Inert and displacement purge cycles 9.4 Principles of ion exchange 9.4.1 Ion-exchange resins 9.4.2 Equilibria and selectivity 9.5 Ion-exchange processes 10 Solid-liquid separation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Gravity sedimentation 10.2.1 Sedimentation mechanisms 10.2.2 Rate of sedimentation 10.2.3 Design of continuous sedimentation tanks 10.2.4 Gravity sedimentation equipment 10.3 Centrifugal sedimentation 10.3.1 Particle velocity in a centrifugal field 10.3.2 Sedimenting centrifuges 10.3.3 Bowl centrifuge separation capability 10.3.4 Hydrocyclones 10.4 Filtration fundamentals 10.4.1 Flow through packed beds 10.4.2 Cake filtration 10.4.3 Constant pressure and constant rate filtration 10.5 Filtration equipment 10.5.1 Continuous large-scale vacuum filters 10.5.2 Batch vacuum filters 10.5.3 Pressure filters 10.6 Filter media 10.7 Centrifugal filtration 10.8 Deep-bed filtration 11 Particle removal from gases 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Separation mechanisms 11.2 Collecting efficiency 11.3 Gravitational separators 11.4 Cyclones 11.5 Electrostatic precipitation 11.5.1 Principles 11.5.2 Equipment and collecting efficiency 11.6 Particle interception mechanisms 11.7 Dry-impingement separators 11.7.1 Deep-bed filtration 11.7.2 Surface filters 11.7.3 Lamellar plate separators 11.8 Wet scrubbers 12 Membrane separations 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Principles 12.2.1 Membranes 12.2.2 Modules 12.2.3 Flux, permeability and selectivity 12.2.4 Concentration polarization and fouling 12.2.5 System design and cascades 12.3 Membrane filtration processes 12.3.1 Microfiltration 12.3.2 Ultrafiltration 12.3.3 Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration 12.4 Solubility driven processes 12.4.1 Gas and vapor permeation 12.4.2 Pervaporation 12.5 Electrodialysis 13 Crystallization and precipitation 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Fundamentals 13.2.1 Solid-liquid equilibria 13.2.2 Supersaturation and metastability 13.2.3 Nucleation 13.2.4 Crystal growth 13.2.5 Effects of impurities 13.3 Crystal characteristics 13.3.1 Morphology 13.3.2 Crystal size distribution 13.3.3 Size control 13.4 Crystallization from solutions 13.4.1 Basic operations 13.4.2 Cooling crystallizers 13.4.3 Evaporating and vacuum crystallizers 13.4.4 Continuous crystallizers 13.5 Crystallizer modeling and design 13.5.1 Basic yield calculations 13.5.2 Population balances 13.5.3 The well-mixed MSMPR crystallizer 13.6 Precipitation 13.7 Melt crystallization 14 Solids finishing technologies 14.1 Overview 14.2 Drying 14.2.1 Classification of drying operations 14.2.2 Drying mechanisms 14.2.3 Direct-heat dryers 14.2.4 Contact dryers 14.2.5 Other drying methods 14.3 Size reduction 14.3.1 Particle breakage 14.3.2 Methods and selection criteria for size reduction 14.3.3 Size-reduction equipment 14.4 Size enlargement 14.4.1 Agglomeration principles 14.4.2 Methods of size enlargement 14.4.3 Growth/tumble agglomeration 14.4.4 Pressure agglomeration 14.4.5 Other agglomeration techniques 14.5 Conveying 14.5.1 Transportation systems 14.5.2 Mechanical conveyors 14.5.3 Pneumatic conveying 15 Product technology 15.1 Cheese-coating technology 15.1.1 Cheese production 15.1.2 Coatings 15.1.3 Application techniques 15.2 Enzyme formulation 15.2.1 Introduction 15.2.2 Glucose isomerase immobilization 15.2.3 Detergent enzymes 15.2.4 Application research 15.3 Compounding 15.3.1 Introduction 15.3.2 Compound formulation 15.3.3 Additives 15.3.4 Polymer-mixing mechanisms 15.3.5 Compounding equipment 15.4 Polymer processing 15.4.1 Extrusion processes 15.4.2 Injection and blow molding 15.4.3 Melt and gel spinning 15.4.4 Film production techniques 15.4.5 Thermoforming 15.4.6 Foam extrusion 16 Development and engineering 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 General aspects of scaling up 16.1.2 Ways of scaling up 16.2 Development and scale-up in the bulk chemical industry 16.2.1 Basic course of process development 16.2.2 Laboratory and bench scale research 16.2.3 Pilot plant research and demonstration plants 16.2.4 Feasibility evaluation 16.3 Engineering and construction 16.3.1 Introduction 16.3.2 Conceptual engineering 16.3.3 Basic engineering 16.3.4 Detailed engineering, procurement, and construction 16.4 Development and scale-up of fine chemical processes 16.4.1 Differences between bulk and fine chemical industry 16.4.2 Fine chemical process development 16.4.3 Scale-up challenges in multipurpose plants 16.4.4 Future developments 17 Hydrodynamic aspects of scale-up 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Mixing and stirring 17.2.1 Basic principles 17.2.2 Liquid mixing equipment 17.2.3 Single phase systems 17.2.4 Multiphase systems 17.2.5 Scale-up and scale-down procedures 17.3 Scale-up methodology for mixing processes 17.3.1 Dimensional, similarity, and regime analysis 17.3.2 Important dimensionless numbers for mixing processes 17.4 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 17.4.1 Introduction 17.4.2 Basic principles 17.4.3 Applications 18 Process safety 18.1 Safety problems in chemical plants 18.2 Development, design, and construction of safe plants 18.2.1 Introduction 18.2.2 Safety assessment 18.2.3 Structure of safety studies 18.3 Identification of hazardous properties of substances 18.3.1 Pure components 18.3.2 Exothermic chemical reactions 18.4 Inherently safer plant design 18.4.1 The concept and its benefits 18.4.2 The road to friendlier plants A Base chemicals A.1 Ammonia A.1.1 General description A.1.2 Desulphurization A.1.3 Primary and secondary reforming A.1.4 Shift conversion A.1.5 Carbon dioxide removal A.1.6 Final purification A.1.7 Ammonia syntheses and recovery A.2 Inorganic acids A.2.1 Nitric acid A.2.2 Sulfuric acid A.3 Ammonia-based products A.3.1 Caprolactam A.3.2 Acrylonitrile A.3.3 Urea A.3.4 Melamine A.4 Naptha cracking A.4.1 Basic principles A.4.2 Hot section A.4.3 Cold section A.4.4 Coke formation A.5 Oxidation processes A.5.1 Toluene oxidation A.5.2 Cyclohexane oxidation A.5.3 n-butane oxidation A.6 Fischer–Tropsch A.6.1 Synthesis gas production A.6.2 Fischer–Tropsch synthesis B Polymer Manufacturing B.1 Polyethylene B.1.1 High-pressure process B.1.2 Solution polymerization B.1.3 Slurry process B.1.4 Gas-phase process B.2 Polypropylene B.2.1 Gas-phase process B.2.2 Slurry process B.3 EPDM B.4 Polyamides B.4.1 Introduction B.4.2 Nylon 6 B.4.3 Nylon 4,6 B.5 Saturated and unsaturated polyesters B.5.1 Saturated polyesters B.5.2 Unsaturated polyesters B.5.3 Powder coatings C Life science products C.1 Benzaldehyde-based products C.1.1 Amino acids C.1.2 Cinnamon aldehyde and cinnamyl alcohol C.1.3 Benzylalcohol C.2 a-picoline C.3 Aspartame C.4 Penicillin C.5 Synthetic antibiotics C.5.1 Introduction C.5.2 Cephalosporins C.5.3 Amoxillins C.6 Glyoxylic acid C.7 Food additives C.7.1 Quinine C.7.2 Enzymes References and further reading Index This book provides a general overview about chemical and biochemical process technology. It focuses on the structure and development of production processes, main technological operations and some important aspects of process economics. For the technological operations the author emphasis operating principles, reasons for application and available industrial equipment