Microbial Approaches for Insect Pest Management

This book brings together specialized information on modern aspects of applied microbiology in pest management. In the last few decades, the humans have witnessed major advancements in Life Sciences, as a result several new and powerful tools and techniques have evolved. This has led to great advancements in microbial nutrition, genetics and their application in different fields. In modern era of biotechnology, the microbes have provided solutions to many of the human problems and necessities and thus serve as human and farmers' friends. The microbes have proved to be successful tools for the pest management. Similarly, there has been much advancement in the field of molecular biology, where many more techniques have evolved which can be helpful in the field of pest management too. Plant resistance, development of transgenic plants, and many more techniques are being considered the panacea to pest problems. On the other hand, there are wide spread concerns of the safety of these microbial and biotechnological interventions with nontarget organisms including humans. While the world stands divided on the ethical issues of these approaches and the many safety concerns, scientists believe that well thought of microbial and biotechnological interventions are probably the only safest ways possible for reducing pest attacks on crops. This is useful read for postgraduate students and teachers, plant protection practitioners across the world and also useful for policy planners Preface Acknowledgments Contents Editor and Contributors About the Editor Contributors 1: Entomopathogenic Viruses Learning Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Entomopathogenic Viruses 1.3 Historical Perspectives of Entomopathogenic Viruses 1.4 Taxonomic Classification of Entomopathogenic Viruses 1.4.1 Ascovirus 1.4.2 Baculovirus Morphological Characteristics of Baculovirus Baculovirus Replication Biochemical and Molecular Characteristics of Baculovirus Interaction of Baculoviruses with Host Insects and Symptoms Development Mode of Action of Baculoviruses in Insect Body 1.4.3 Cypovirus 1.4.4 Densovirus 1.4.5 Dicistrovirus 1.4.6 Entomopoxvirus 1.4.7 Iridovirus 1.4.8 Nudiviruses 1.4.9 Polydnavirus 1.5 Genomics of Major Entomopathogenic Virus 1.6 Biopesticide Strategies for Entomopathogenic Viruses 1.7 Mass Production and Application of Insect Viruses 1.7.1 Mass Production of Insect Viruses 1.7.2 Processing and Formulation of NPV 1.8 Future Perspectives 1.9 Conclusion 1.10 Points to Remember References 2: Entomopathogenic Bacteria Learning Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Biological Pesticides 2.3 Microbial Pesticides 2.4 Bacterial Insect Pathogenesis 2.4.1 Mode of Action 2.5 Entomopathogenic Bacteria 2.5.1 Types of Entomopathogenic Bacteria Other than BT 2.5.2 Insect Pathogenic Bacteria Belong to Different Groups/Classes 2.5.3 Gram-Positive Entomopathogenic Bacteria Bacillaceae Bacillus thuringiensis Lysinibacillus Sphaericus Paenibacillaceae Paenibacillus Spp. Brevibacillus laterosporus Clostridiaceae Clostridium bifermentans Actinobacteria Saccharopolyspora spinosa Streptomyces Spp. 2.5.4 Gram-Negative Entomopathogenic Bacteria Gammaproteobacteria Photorhabdus Spp. and Xenorhabdus Spp. Serratia Spp. Yersinia entomophaga Pseudomonas entomophila Betaproteobacteria Chromobacterium Spp. Burkholderia Spp. 2.6 Advantages 2.7 Disadvantages 2.8 Conclusions 2.9 Points to Remember References 3: Bacillus thuringiensis Learning Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biopesticides 3.2.1 Bt-Based Biopesticides 3.2.2 Brief History and Development of B. thuringiensis 3.2.3 Serotyping and Servovars 3.2.4 Commercially Available Bt Bioformulations 3.2.5 Biopesticides in India 3.2.6 Bt Formulations Against the Insect Pests 3.2.7 Limitations for Growth of Microbial Biopesticides Market in India 3.3 Genetic Constituent of Bt 3.4 Three Domain Structure of Bt Cry Proteins 3.5 Mode of Action of Bt Toxins 3.6 Classification of Bt Proteins 3.6.1 Primary Rank Proteins 3.6.2 Bt Proteins Deployed in Commercialized Genetically Engineered (GE) Crops Cry1Ab1 Cry1Ac Cry1Fa2 Cry1A.105 Cry2Ab Cry2Ae Vip3Aa Cry3Aa and mCry3Aa (Modified Cry3Aa) 3.7 Bt Transgenic Crops 3.7.1 Transformation Technologies 3.7.2 Commercialized Bt Crops 3.7.3 Bt Cotton: Commercialized Events 3.8 Insect Resistance to Bt Toxins 3.8.1 Laboratory Selection to Bt Toxins 3.8.2 Field Evolved Resistance 3.8.3 Vip Proteins in Transgenic Crops and Resistance Scenario 3.9 Mechanism of Resistance 3.10 Validation of Insect Resistance with the Genome Editing Tool CRISPR-Cas9 3.11 Insect Resistance Management 3.12 Safety of Bt Crops 3.13 Conclusions 3.14 Future Perspectives 3.15 Points to Remember References 4: The Endophytes Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 What Is an Endophyte? 4.2.1 Colonization Cycle 4.2.2 Mechanisms Underlying Endophyte Resistance 4.3 Root Endophytes and the Role of Host Plants on Diversity and Density of Endophytes 4.4 Artificially Endophytic Entomopathogenic Fungi Application 4.5 Can Endophytes Always Colonize Host Plant? 4.6 Instances of Endophyte Inoculation 4.7 The Roles of Endophytes in Plants 4.7.1 Phytostimulation 4.7.2 Endophytes Modulate Plant Development 4.7.3 Plants Use Microbes to Mine for Soil Metals 4.7.4 Rhizophagy Microbes Take Nutrients from Other Soil Microbes 4.7.5 Mechanisms for Endophyte-Mediated Diseases Suppression 4.7.6 Endophytes Alter Oxidative Stress Tolerance in Plants 4.8 Pest Suppression 4.8.1 Mechanisms for Endophyte-Mediated Pest Management 4.9 Control of Weeds by Endophytes 4.10 The Ability of Endophytes in Producing Secondary Metabolites 4.11 How Do Endophytes Help their Host Plants Grow? 4.12 Entomopathogenic Fungi 4.12.1 Activity as Biocontrol Agents against Plant Diseases 4.12.2 Metarhizium and Beauveria 4.12.3 Coapplication of Entomopathogens or Individual Using (with Emphasis on M. Robertsii and B. Bassiana) 4.12.4 The Interactions between Endophytic Fungal Entomopathogens, Insect Pests, and Natural Enemies 4.12.5 Niche Partitioning and Long Lasting Protection by Endophyte Application Type 4.13 Endophyte Can Reduce the Transmission of Viral Diseases 4.14 Seeds and Endophytes 4.15 How Do Endophytes Confer Resistance to their Host Plants? 4.16 Endophytic Bacteria 4.16.1 Obligatory or Facultative Endophytic Bacteria 4.16.2 The Role of Rhizobacteria in the Control of Pest Insects 4.16.3 The Efficacy of Different Bacterial Strains against Pests 4.17 Recombinant Endophyte 4.18 Possibility of Using Endophytes and Endophytic Products 4.19 Does the Use of Endophytes Provide a Permanent Immunity? 4.20 Specialization in Endophytes and Hosts 4.21 How May Environmental Factors Change the Diversity and Frequency of Endophytes? 4.22 Disadvantages of Endophyte Application 4.23 Conclusions 4.24 Points to Remember References 5: The Symbionts Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Insect Symbionts, Different Types, and Roles 5.2.1 Definition of Symbiosis and Different Types 5.2.2 Diversity of Symbiotic Associations in Insects 5.2.3 The Importance of the Symbionts in Insect Ecology Providing Essential Nutrition and Food Digestion Influence on Insect-Plant Interaction Population-Level Impacts of Endosymbionts Symbionts Influence the Heat Sensitivity of the Insect Host Symbiont-Mediated Degradation of Pesticides Protection Against Natural Enemies 5.3 Symbionts Mediate Protection Against Natural Enemies 5.3.1 Protection Against Predators Pseudomonas Sp. and Paederus Beetles ``Ca. Profftellaarmatura ́ ́ and Diaphorina citri Rickettsiellaviridis and Pea Aphid 5.3.2 Protection Against Parasitoids Facultative Endosymbionts and Acyrthosiphonpisum Regiellainsecticola and Myzuspersicae Hamiltonelladefensa, Regiellainsecticola, and Aphis fabae Hamiltonella Defense and Rhopalosiphumpadi Hamiltonella Defense and Aphis craccivora Spiroplasma and Drosophilahydei Wolbachia and Drosophilasimulans 5.3.3 Protection Against Pathogens Facultative Endosymbionts and Acyrthosiphon pisum ``Candidatus Streptomyces philanthi ́ ́ and Beewolf Digger Wasps Pseudonocardia/Streptomyces/Amycolatopsis and Fungus-Farming Ants Streptomyces Sp. and Bark/Ambrosia Beetles Actinobacteria and Fungus-Farming Termites Burkholderia-Lagria Beetles Spiroplasma Sp. and Drosophila Neotestacea Spiroplasma and Tsetse Flies Wolbachia and Different Flies 5.4 The Potential Application of Symbionts in Pest Control 5.4.1 Heterologous Associations Wolbachia Transinfection of Ae. Aegypti Wolbachia Transinfection of Anopheles Mosquitoes Wolbachia Transinfection of Nilaparvatalugens 5.4.2 Paratransgenesis Paratransgenesis Against Chagas Disease Paratransgenesis Against Malaria Paratransgenesis Against Sleeping Sickness Paratransgenesis Against Pierce ́s Disease of Grape 5.4.3 Incompatible Insect Technique (IIT) IIT/SIT and Mosquito Species IIT and Agricultural Pests 5.4.4 Manipulation of Insect-Associated Symbionts 5.5 Conclusions 5.6 Points to Remember References 6: Metagenomic Approaches for Insect Symbionts Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 History and Milestones in the Metagenomic Research 6.3 Insect Microbiome and its Functional Role 6.3.1 Nutritional Symbioses of Gut Microbes 6.3.2 Protection against Natural Enemies of the Insect Host 6.3.3 Gut Microbes in Detoxification of Xenobiotics 6.3.4 Gut Microbes in Insect Communication and Mating 6.3.5 Trophic Interactions 6.3.6 Interaction of Gut Microbiota in Productive Insects 6.4 Insect Microbiome Analysis: From Genomics to Metagenomics 6.4.1 Traditional Molecular Approaches in Microbiome Analysis Gene-Specific PCR Molecular Fingerprinting Techniques Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization 6.4.2 Metagenomics 6.5 Types and Approaches in Metagenomics 6.5.1 Types of Metagenome Analysis Amplicon-Based Analysis Shotgun Metagenome Analysis 6.5.2 Approaches in Metagenome Analysis Sequence-Based Metagenomics Functional Metagenomics 6.6 Steps Involved in Metagenomic Studies 6.6.1 Sample Preparation 6.6.2 Metagenomic DNA Extraction 6.6.3 Purification of Metagenomic DNA 6.6.4 Metagenomic DNA Library Preparation 6.6.5 Purification of Metagenomic DNA Library 6.6.6 Metagenomic DNA Sequencing 6.6.7 Metagenomic Sequence Data Analysis Shortgun Metagenome-Sequence Analysis Pre-Processing of Sequence Reads De Novo Assembly Binning Annotation Amplicon-Based Metagenomic Analysis Pre-Processing of Reads for Amplicon Analysis OTU Picking and Taxonomic Assignment Statistical Analysis Phylogenetic Analysis Functional Analysis 6.7 Metagenome Analysis of Insect Pests: An Overview 6.7.1 Termites 6.7.2 Pea Aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum 6.7.3 Boll Worm, Helicoverpa Armigera 6.7.4 Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci 6.7.5 Diamond Back Moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) 6.8 Application of Metagenomics in Insect Pest Management 6.8.1 Improve Biosurveillance Programme 6.8.2 Suppression of Vector Competence of Insects 6.8.3 Manipulation of Host Range of Insect Pests 6.8.4 Heterologous Symbionts those Are Insecticidal 6.8.5 Paratransgenesis and Induced Lethality in Insect Pests 6.8.6 Genetically Modified Microorganisms as Insecticides 6.8.7 Elimination of Vertically Transmitted Obligate Microbial Partner 6.8.8 Elimination of Horizontally Transmitted Obligate Microbial Partner 6.9 Future Perspective 6.10 Conclusions 6.11 Points to Be Remember References 7: Entomopathogenic Fungi Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Groups of Entomopathogenic Fungi 7.2.1 Classification of the Entomopathogenic Fungi Phylum Oomycota Phylum Chytridiomycota Phylum Zygomycota Phylum Ascomycota and Deuteromycota Phylum Basidiomycota Phylum Entomophthoromycota 7.3 General Characteristics of Entomopathogenic Fungi 7.4 Mechanism of Infection of Entomopathogenic Fungi 7.4.1 Adhesins 7.4.2 Lytic Enzymes 7.4.3 Role of Secondary Metabolites in Infection Destruxins Beauvericins Oosporein 7.5 Culture of Entomopathogenic Fungi 7.5.1 Maintenance of Culture 7.5.2 Process Sterility 7.5.3 Nutrients 7.6 Product Formulations 7.6.1 Mass Production 7.6.2 Wettable Powders 7.6.3 Oil Formulations 7.7 Patents Granted on Entomopathogenic Fungi Formulations 7.8 Conclusion 7.9 Points to Remember References 8: Entomopathogenic Protozoa 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Protozoan Assessment as Biocontrol Agent 8.2.1 Phylum Ciliophora 8.2.2 Phylum Sarcomastigophora 8.2.3 Phylum Apicomplexa Laboratory Experiments Field Trials Stored Grain Pests 8.2.4 Phylum Microspora 8.3 Pathogenicity 8.3.1 N. Pyrausta (Paillot) (Fig. 8.5) 8.3.2 V. Necatrix (Kramer) (Fig. 8.6) 8.3.3 Endoreticulatus Schubergi (Zwolfer) (Fig. 8.7) 8.4 Transmission 8.4.1 Horizontal Alone 8.4.2 Horizontal Alone As Well as Vertical and Horizontal Routes 8.5 Protozoans as Biocontrol Agents to Restrict Grasshoppers and Locusts 8.6 Forest and Tree Crop Pests 8.7 Observations on the Sporoplasm 8.8 Molecular Characterization of the Organisms of Biocontrol 8.9 Molecular Mechanism in Pathogeny 8.10 Microsporidia Invasion 8.11 Environmental Interactions 8.12 Advantages and Disadvantages 8.12.1 Advantages 8.12.2 Disadvantages 8.13 Production and Storage 8.13.1 Production In Vivo Production In Vitro Production 8.13.2 Storage 8.14 Future Prospects of Protozoans Biocontrol of Insect Pests 8.15 Conclusions 8.16 Points to Remember References 9: Entomopathogenic Nematodes Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Nematodes and Entomopathogenic Nematodes (EPNs) 9.1.2 Morpho-Taxomerical and Molecular Identification of EPNs 9.1.3 Life Cycle of EPN and their Bacterial Symbionts 9.1.4 Mode of Action 9.2 Target Insects Pests and their Control 9.2.1 Insect Pests in Abroad 9.2.2 Insect Pests in India 9.2.3 Application of Pesticides in India 9.3 Insect Pest Management 9.3.1 EPN in Insect Pest Management 9.3.2 Bio-Formulations Using EPNs 9.3.3 Formulation Technology in Aboard 9.3.4 Formulation Technology in India 9.3.5 Globally Available Formulations and their Application 9.3.6 Formulations Developed at Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut Gel Formulation Water Dispersible Granule (WDG) Sponge Formulation Formulated Cadaver 9.3.7 EPN Harvesting Machine 9.4 Conclusions 9.5 Points to Remember References 10: Ethics and Safety Concerns Learning Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Biotic Stresses in Crops and IPM Strategies 10.2.1 Biological Pesticides for Biotic Stress Management in Crops 10.2.2 Microbial Pesticides for Pest Management 10.3 Regulatory Process of Biopesticides in India 10.3.1 Ethical and Regulatory Concerns in the MP Formulation Sector 10.3.2 Management of Quality Compliance 10.3.3 Model Format for Quality Management Protocol for Microbial Pesticides Manufacture Factory 10.3.4 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) 10.3.5 Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) 10.4 Hazard Perception in the Use of Microbial Biocontrol Agents 10.5 Packaging and Container Compatibility 10.5.1 Packaging, Storage and Transport 10.6 Utilization of Biotechnology Procedures for Pest Management 10.6.1 Biotechnology Advancements in Crop Pest Management 10.6.2 Risk Assessment Protocols of Genetically Modified (GM) Biocontrol Agents 10.6.3 Ethical and Regulatory Concerns in the Biotechnology of Crops for Pest Management 10.7 Conclusions 10.8 Points to Remember References