Terrorism and Torture : An Interdisciplinary Perspective

Terrorism and torture are twin evils that have dominated news headlines – particularly since the horrifying events of 9/11. In this thought-provoking volume, scholars from a diverse range of disciplines examine the complex motivational and situational factors contributing to terrorist acts and state-sponsored torture, and the potential linkage between those two heinous human behaviors. They also consider the strategies that might reduce the threat of future terrorist acts, and the perceived necessity to engage in morally reprehensible – and often illegal – torture practices. With its integrated synthesis of contemporary theories and research on the complex dynamics of the terrorism-torture link, this is an authoritative source for scholars and students of psychology, criminal justice, law, media, communication studies, and political science. It will also appeal to students of other disciplines with an interest in the study of terrorism and torture. Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Figures......Page 9 Tables......Page 11 Contributors......Page 13 Preface......Page 15 References......Page 16 Terrorism risk and torture......Page 17 Terrorism and torture provoke fear......Page 18 State-sponsored terrorism and torture......Page 19 The law, criminal justice, and crime prevention......Page 20 Psychological and motivational processes......Page 24 The role of the media......Page 27 Public reactions and political perspectives......Page 30 References......Page 32 2 Torture, terrorism, and the moral prohibition on killing non-combatants......Page 34 The strategic imperative?......Page 35 Non-combatant immunity......Page 43 Torture......Page 45 Terrorism......Page 51 Conclusion......Page 54 Notes......Page 55 References......Page 56 3 The equivalent logic of torture and terrorism: the legal regulation of moral monstrosity......Page 60 Justifying violence: the just cause of defending human rights......Page 61 Justifying violence and the means: asymmetrical struggles......Page 63 Exceptional means to achieve a just cause......Page 64 Manipulative interpretation of existing laws......Page 65 An intermediate, compromise position: claims of necessity......Page 68 Direct challenges to existing laws......Page 71 Conclusion......Page 74 Notes......Page 75 References......Page 76 The competing implications of war and justice for responding to terrorism......Page 79 Individual vs. group targets......Page 80 Top priority vs. competing priorities......Page 81 Military vs. criminal-justice values......Page 82 Judicial mistakes vs. jujitsu politics......Page 83 A look at the numbers......Page 84 What does effective counter-terrorism look like in an occupied territory?......Page 85 What does unsuccessful counter-terrorism look like in an occupied territory?......Page 87 What does counter-terrorism look like in democratic countries?......Page 89 How are criminal gangs and terrorist groups alike?......Page 91 What does the Pentagon think is needed to succeed against terrorists?......Page 94 Terrorism as Politics: War, Justice, and Torture......Page 95 References......Page 99 5 Reducing the opportunities for terrorism: applying the principles of situational crime prevention......Page 102 Situational crime prevention......Page 103 The opportunity structure for terrorism......Page 106 Analyzing the opportunity structure......Page 108 Weapons......Page 110 Tools......Page 111 Facilitating conditions......Page 113 Changing the opportunity structure for terrorism......Page 114 Evaluation......Page 116 A program of situational prevention......Page 117 Conclusions......Page 119 References......Page 120 6 From the terrorists' point of view: toward a better understanding of the staircase to terrorism......Page 122 The staircase to terrorism......Page 123 Variability in the relative importance of contextual and dispositional factors......Page 125 Degrees of freedom......Page 127 The "rotten barrel" rather than "a few bad apples"......Page 128 The crisis of identity in Islamic communities......Page 131 Evolution of identity......Page 132 Catastrophic evolution and identity threat......Page 134 Perceived identity threat in Islamic societies......Page 135 Concluding comment......Page 137 References......Page 138 An initial caveat: some terrorists are mentally unbalanced/socially dysfunctional......Page 141 Terrorists are "normal people"......Page 142 A case study......Page 143 Beliefs about terror are social constructions......Page 144 A theoretical framework: from costs and benefits to identities and norms......Page 146 The cycle of violence: terrorist and non-terrorists' decisions......Page 150 Psychological outcomes......Page 153 Political outcomes......Page 154 Implications of an agentic normative influence approach for conflict management......Page 159 References......Page 164 8 The cycle of righteous destruction: a Terror Management Theory perspective on terrorist and counter-terrorist violence......Page 170 Reciprocal violence......Page 171 Terror Management Theory......Page 173 Why do terrorists kill?......Page 175 Humiliation and injustice......Page 176 Alienation and identity confusion......Page 180 Community support......Page 181 Terrorism, death reminders and support for terrorist and counter-terrorist violence......Page 182 The cycle of violence as symbolic attacks......Page 183 A ray of hope......Page 185 Compassionate values......Page 187 Common humanity and the value of family......Page 188 The value of caring relationships......Page 189 References......Page 190 9 Misinformation and the "War on Terror": when memory turns fiction into fact......Page 195 The power of hints: the creation of false memories......Page 196 "The jury will disregard...": discounting of misinformation......Page 199 From suspicion to skepticism: differentiating between information and propaganda......Page 205 Skepticism and the media: mission unaccomplished......Page 209 Conclusions and outlook......Page 212 Notes......Page 215 References......Page 216 Images of terrorism: negotiating with the media as victim and icon......Page 220 Images of torture: resistance to the "War on Terror"'s hegemonic discourse within the media......Page 228 Afterword......Page 234 References......Page 235 The persistence of torture......Page 237 The facts about news coverage of the torture phenomenon......Page 238 Coverage is incomplete......Page 240 News media avoid the "torture" label......Page 243 The questionable quality of torture stories......Page 245 Justifying war-time torture......Page 246 Coverage delays and sparsity......Page 248 How systematic is torture?......Page 250 Indexing torture stories to official versions......Page 251 Dearth of investigative journalism in torture situations......Page 253 The power of the news media to change public policies......Page 254 The findings in perspective......Page 255 What can be done, realistically?......Page 257 Appendix......Page 258 References......Page 259 Suggested further reading......Page 261 12 Reversed negatives: how the news media respond to "our" atrocities......Page 262 White and misperception in wars......Page 264 News coverage and selective perception......Page 266 Saddam’s endless evil and Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction (WMDs)......Page 271 The hidden casualties of allied bombing......Page 273 The hidden casualties of allied behavior......Page 275 An inexplicable parade of abstracted deaths......Page 276 Conclusion......Page 277 References......Page 278 The 2001 Australian election......Page 281 Media coverage and differential effects on issue salience for voters......Page 282 Issue agenda-setting and issue priming......Page 284 Data and methods......Page 285 Television issue coverage......Page 286 Voter predispositions and exposure to TV campaign news......Page 289 Exposure to TV and timing of vote decision: effects on international issues as key to vote choice......Page 291 Exposure to TV and timing of vote choice: effects on issue agenda setting......Page 293 International security and domestic issue effects on political evaluations......Page 295 Attitudes toward security/domestic issues and voter policy stances......Page 297 Conclusion......Page 300 References......Page 303 14 Terrorism, anxiety, and war......Page 306 Anxiety and opposition to war......Page 307 Post-September 11 anxiety......Page 308 Support for war in Afghanistan......Page 311 Support for war in Iraq......Page 313 Determinants of anxiety......Page 316 Emotional reactions to physical threat......Page 318 War support......Page 320 Conclusion......Page 322 Anxiety and the gender gap......Page 323 Notes......Page 324 References......Page 325 15 I'm right, you're dead: speculations about the roots of fanaticism......Page 329 References......Page 339 16 Reducing terrorist risk: integrating jurisdictional and opportunity approaches......Page 341 Questioning the necessity of the "other": alternatives to exclusionary actuarial strategies......Page 342 Approaches to society-wide risk reduction: an analogy with public health......Page 344 Ensuring there is a functioning political system to address dissatisfaction......Page 348 Acknowledging the existence of underlying causes that motivate and perpetuate terror......Page 349 The staircase metaphor: a broad model for reducing support for terrorism......Page 351 Decreasing immediate threat: focusing on terrorists or opportunity......Page 352 Targeting potential terrorist opportunities......Page 353 Integrating jurisdictional and opportunity-focused approaches to reducing terrorist risk......Page 356 Conclusion ......Page 358 References......Page 359 Index......Page 361 Half-title 3 Title 5 Copyright 6 Contents 7 Figures 9 Tables 11 Contributors 13 Preface 15 References 16 1 The terrorism-torture link: when evil begets evil 17 Terrorism risk and torture 17 Terrorism and torture provoke fear 18 State-sponsored terrorism and torture 19 An interdisciplinary analysis of the terrorism-torture link 20 The law, criminal justice, and crime prevention 20 Psychological and motivational processes 24 The role of the media 27 Public reactions and political perspectives 30 An integrative framework for reducing terrorist risk 32 References 32 2 Torture, terrorism, and the moral prohibition on killing non-combatants 34 The strategic imperative? 35 Non-combatant immunity 43 The twin ills of torture and terrorism 45 Torture 45 Terrorism 51 Conclusion 54 Notes 55 References 56 3 The equivalent logic of torture and terrorism: the legal regulation of moral monstrosity 60 Justifying violence: the just cause of defending human rights 61 Justifying violence and the means: asymmetrical struggles 63 Exceptional means to achieve a just cause 64 Manipulative interpretation of existing laws 65 An intermediate, compromise position: claims of necessity 68 Direct challenges to existing laws 71 Conclusion 74 Notes 75 References 76 4 War versus criminal justice in response to terrorism: the losing logic of torture 79 The competing implications of war and justice for responding to terrorism 79 Beginnings and endings 80 Individual vs. group targets 80 Stereotypical vs. atypical perpetrators 81 Top priority vs. competing priorities 81 Military vs. criminal-justice values 82 Judicial mistakes vs. jujitsu politics 83 Summary brief for criminal justice 84 War versus criminal justice: lessons since 9/11 84 A look at the numbers 84 What does effective counter-terrorism look like in an occupied territory? 85 What does unsuccessful counter-terrorism look like in an occupied territory? 87 What does counter-terrorism look like in democratic countries? 89 How are criminal gangs and terrorist groups alike? 91 What does the Pentagon think is needed to succeed against terrorists? 94 Terrorism as Politics: War, Justice, and Torture 95 Acknowledgment 99 References 99 5 Reducing the opportunities for terrorism: applying the principles of situational crime prevention 102 Situational crime prevention 103 The opportunity structure for terrorism 106 Analyzing the opportunity structure 108 Targets 110 Weapons 110 Tools 111 Facilitating conditions 113 Changing the opportunity structure for terrorism 114 Evaluation 116 A program of situational prevention 117 Conclusions 119 Notes 120 References 120 6 From the terrorists' point of view: toward a better understanding of the staircase to terrorism 122 The staircase to terrorism 123 Variability in the relative importance of contextual and dispositional factors 125 Degrees of freedom 127 The "rotten barrel" rather than "a few bad apples" 128 The crisis of identity in Islamic communities 131 Evolution of identity 132 Catastrophic evolution and identity threat 134 Perceived identity threat in Islamic societies 135 Concluding comment 137 References 138 7 If they're not crazy, then what? The implications of social psychological approaches to terrorism for conflict management 141 An initial caveat: some terrorists are mentally unbalanced/socially dysfunctional 141 Terrorists are "normal people" 142 A case study 143 Beliefs about terror are social constructions 144 A theoretical framework: from costs and benefits to identities and norms 146 The cycle of violence: terrorist and non-terrorists' decisions 150 Research on the psychological and political consequences of terrorism 153 Psychological outcomes 153 Political outcomes 154 Implications of an agentic normative influence approach for conflict management 159 Conclusions 164 References 164 8 The cycle of righteous destruction: a Terror Management Theory perspective on terrorist and counter-terrorist violence 170 Reciprocal violence 171 Terror Management Theory 173 Why do terrorists kill? 175 Humiliation and injustice 176 Alienation and identity confusion 180 Community support 181 Terrorism, death reminders and support for terrorist and counter-terrorist violence 182 The cycle of violence as symbolic attacks 183 A ray of hope 185 Compassionate values 187 Common humanity and the value of family 188 The value of caring relationships 189 Summary and conclusion 190 References 190 9 Misinformation and the "War on Terror": when memory turns fiction into fact 195 The power of hints: the creation of false memories 196 "The jury will disregard...": discounting of misinformation 199 From suspicion to skepticism: differentiating between information and propaganda 205 Skepticism and the media: mission unaccomplished 209 Conclusions and outlook 212 Notes 215 References 216 10 Icons of fear: terrorism, torture, and the media 220 Images of terrorism: negotiating with the media as victim and icon 220 Images of torture: resistance to the "War on Terror"'s hegemonic discourse within the media 228 Afterword 234 References 235 11 What explains torture coverage during war-time? A search for realistic answers 237 The persistence of torture 237 The facts about news coverage of the torture phenomenon 238 Common complaints about torture reports 240 Coverage is incomplete 240 News media avoid the "torture" label 243 The questionable quality of torture stories 245 Justifying war-time torture 246 Coverage delays and sparsity 248 How systematic is torture? 250 Indexing torture stories to official versions 251 Dearth of investigative journalism in torture situations 253 The power of the news media to change public policies 254 Conclusions 255 The findings in perspective 255 What can be done, realistically? 257 Appendix 258 Notes 259 References 259 Suggested further reading 261 12 Reversed negatives: how the news media respond to "our" atrocities 262 White and misperception in wars 264 News coverage and selective perception 266 The war in Iraq 271 Saddam’s endless evil and Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) 271 The hidden casualties of allied bombing 273 The hidden casualties of allied behavior 275 An inexplicable parade of abstracted deaths 276 Conclusion 277 Note 278 References 278 13 Terrorism and TV news coverage of the 2001 Australian election 281 The 2001 Australian election 281 Media coverage and differential effects on issue salience for voters 282 Issue agenda-setting and issue priming 284 Data and methods 285 Findings and discussion 286 Television issue coverage 286 Voter predispositions and exposure to TV campaign news 289 Interaction effects models 291 Exposure to TV and timing of vote decision: effects on international issues as key to vote choice 291 Exposure to TV and timing of vote choice: effects on issue agenda setting 293 International security and domestic issue effects on political evaluations 295 Attitudes toward security/domestic issues and voter policy stances 297 Conclusion 300 Appendix 303 Notes 303 References 303 14 Terrorism, anxiety, and war 306 Anxiety and opposition to war 307 Support for war in Afghanistan and Iraq 308 Post-September 11 anxiety 308 Support for war in Afghanistan 311 Support for war in Iraq 313 Determinants of anxiety 316 Gendered reactions to terrorism 318 Emotional reactions to physical threat 318 War support 320 Conclusion 322 Anxiety and the gender gap 323 Notes 324 References 325 15 I'm right, you're dead: speculations about the roots of fanaticism 329 References 339 16 Reducing terrorist risk: integrating jurisdictional and opportunity approaches 341 Questioning the necessity of the "other": alternatives to exclusionary actuarial strategies 342 Approaches to society-wide risk reduction: an analogy with public health 344 Operationalizing a jurisdictional approach to reducing terrorist risk 348 Ensuring there is a functioning political system to address dissatisfaction 348 Acknowledging the existence of underlying causes that motivate and perpetuate terror 349 The staircase metaphor: a broad model for reducing support for terrorism 351 Decreasing immediate threat: focusing on terrorists or opportunity 352 Targeting potential terrorist individuals and networks 353 Targeting potential terrorist opportunities 353 Integrating jurisdictional and opportunity-focused approaches to reducing terrorist risk 356 Conclusion 358 Notes 359 References 359 Index 361 A Thought-provoking Volume Examining The Complex Factors Contributing To Terrorism And Torture, And The Links Between Those Two Heinous Behaviours. The Terrorism-torture Link : When Evil Begets Evil / Werner G.k. Stritzke And Stephan Lewandowsky -- Torture, Terrorism, And The Moral Prohibition On Killing Non-combatants / Alex J. Bellamy -- The Equivalent Logic Of Torture And Terrorism : The Legal Regulation Of Moral Monstrosity / Ben Saul -- War Versus Criminal Justice In Response To Terrorism : The Losing Logic Of Torture / Clark Mccauley -- Reducing The Opportunities For Terrorism : Applying The Principles Of Situational Crime Prevention / Ronald V. Clarke And Graeme R. Newman -- From The Terrorists' Point Of View : Toward A Better Understanding Of The Staircase To Terrorism / Fathali M. Moghaddam -- If They're Not Crazy, Then What? The Implications Of Social Psychological Approaches To Terrorism For Conflict Management / Winnifred R. Louis -- The Cycle Of Righteous Destruction : A Terror Management Theory Perspective On Terrorist And Counter-terrorist Violence / Tom Pyszczynski, Zachary Rothschild, Matt Motyl, And Abdolhossein Abdollahi -- Misinformation And The War On Terror : When Memory Turns Fiction Into Fact / Stephan Lewandowsky, Werner G.k. Stritzke, Klaus Oberauer, And Michael Morales -- Icons Of Fear : Terrorism, Torture, And The Media / John Tulloch -- What Explains Torture Coverage During War-time? A Search For Realistic Answers / Doris Graber And Gregory Holyk -- Reversed Negatives : How The News Media Respond To Our Atrocities / Rodney Tiffen -- Terrorism And Tv News Coverage Of The 2001 Australian Election / David Denemark -- Terrorism, Anxiety, And War / Leonie Huddy, Stanley Feldman, And Erin Cassese -- I'm Right, You're Dead : Speculations About The Roots Of Fanaticism / Carmen Lawrence -- Reducing Terrorist Risk : Integrating Jurisdictional And Opportunity Approaches / Joseph Clare And Frank Morgan. Edited By Werner G. K. Stritzke ... [et Al.]. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. "Terrorism and torture are twin evils that have dominated news headlines - particularly since the horrifying events of 9/11. In this thought-provoking volume, scholars from a diverse range of disciplines examine the complex motivational and situational factors contributing to terrorist acts and state-sponsored torture, and the potential linkage between those two heinous human behaviors. They also consider the strategies that might reduce the threat of future terrorist acts, and the perceived necessity to engage in morally reprehensible - and often illegal - torture practices. With its integrated synthesis of contemporary theories and research on the complex dynamics of the terrorism-torture link, this is an authoritative source for scholars and students of psychology, criminal justice, law, media, communication studies, and political science. It will also appeal to students of other disciplines with an interest in the study of terrorism and torture"--Résumé de l'éditeur "A thought-provoking volume examining the complex factors contributing to terrorism and torture, and the links between those two heinous behaviours. They also consider the strategies that might reduce the threat of future terrorist acts, and the perceived necessity to engage in morally reprehensible - and often illegal - torture practices"--Publisher's description