Soil Mechanics and Foundations, 3rd Edition

Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright 4 PREFACE 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 6 NOTES FOR STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS 7 NOTES FOR INSTRUCTORS 9 CONTENTS 12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 19 1.0 Introduction 19 1.1 Marvels of Civil Engineering—The Hidden Truth 20 1.2 Geotechnical Lessons from Failures 21 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS 23 2.0 Introduction 23 2.1 Definitions of Key Terms 23 2.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 24 2.3 Basic Geology 24 2.3.1 Earth’s Profile 24 2.3.2 Plate Tectonics 24 2.3.3 Composition of the Earth’s Crust 25 2.3.4 Discontinuities 26 2.3.5 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time 26 2.4 Composition of Soils 28 2.4.1 Soil Formation 28 2.4.2 Soil Types 28 2.4.3 Clay Minerals 29 2.4.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water 30 2.4.5 Soil Fabric 31 2.5 Determination of Particle Size of Soils - ASTM D 422 33 2.5.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils 33 2.5.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils 34 2.5.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size 35 2.6 Comparison of Coarse-Grained and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use 42 2.7 Summary 42 Self-Assessment 43 Exercises 43 CHAPTER 3 SOILS INVESTIGATION 44 3.0 Introduction 44 3.1 Definitions of Key Terms 45 3.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 45 3.3 Purposes of a Soils Investigation 45 3.4 Phases of a Soils Investigation 45 3.5 Soils Exploration Program 47 3.5.1 Soils Exploration Methods 47 3.5.2 Soil Identification in the Field 50 3.5.3 Number and Depths of Boreholes 52 3.5.4 Soil Sampling 53 3.5.5 Groundwater Conditions 54 3.5.6 Soils Laboratory Tests 55 3.5.7 Types of In Situ or Field Tests 55 3.5.8 Types of Laboratory Tests 61 3.6 Soils Report 64 3.7 Summary 65 Self-Assessment 65 Exercises 65 CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL SOIL STATES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION 66 4.0 Introduction 66 4.1 Definitions of Key Terms 67 4.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 67 4.3 Phase Relationships 68 4.4 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-Grained Soils 79 4.5 Determination of the Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits 82 4.5.1 Casagrande Cup Method—ASTM D 4318 82 4.5.2 Plastic Limit Test—ASTM D 4318 83 4.5.3 Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits 83 4.5.4 Shrinkage Limit—ASTM D 427 and D 4943 84 4.6 Soil Classification Schemes 88 4.6.1 Unified Soil Classification System 89 4.6.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Classification System 89 4.6.3 AASHTO Soil Classification System 92 4.6.4 Plasticity Chart 94 4.7 Engineering Use Chart 94 4.8 Summary 98 Self-Assessment 99 Practical Examples 99 Exercises 101 CHAPTER 5 SOIL COMPACTION 105 5.0 Introduction 105 5.1 Definitions of Key Terms 106 5.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 106 5.3 Basic Concept 106 5.4 Proctor Compaction Test—ASTM D 1140 and ASTM D 1557 107 5.5 Interpretation of Proctor Test Results 109 5.6 Benefits of Soil Compaction 113 5.7 Field Compaction 114 5.8 Compaction Quality Control 115 5.8.1 Sand Cone—ASTM D 1556 115 5.8.2 Balloon Test—ASTM D 2167 118 5.8.3 Nuclear Density Meter—ASTM D 2922, ASTM D 5195 118 5.8.4 Comparison Among the Popular Compaction Quality Control Tests 119 5.9 Summary 120 Self-Assessment 120 Practical Example 120 Exercises 121 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS 123 6.0 Introduction 123 6.1 Definitions of Key Terms 123 6.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 123 6.3 Head and Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 124 6.4 Darcy’s Law 127 6.5 Empirical Relationships for k 129 6.6 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers 134 6.7 Flow Normal to Soil Layers 135 6.8 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity 135 6.9 Determination of the Hydraulic Conductivity 136 6.9.1 Constant-Head Test 136 6.9.2 Falling-Head Test 137 6.9.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Hydraulic Conductivity 140 6.10 Groundwater Lowering by Wellpoints 142 6.11 Summary 144 Self-Assessment 144 Practical Example 144 Exercises 145 CHAPTER 7 STRESSES, STRAINS, AND ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS OF SOILS 149 7.0 Introduction 149 7.1 Definitions of Key Terms 151 7.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 151 7.3 Stresses and Strains 151 7.3.1 Normal Stresses and Strains 151 7.3.2 Volumetric Strain 152 7.3.3 Shear Stresses and Shear Strains 152 7.4 Idealized Stress–Strain Response and Yielding 153 7.4.1 Material Responses to Normal Loading and Unloading 153 7.4.2 Material Response to Shear Forces 155 7.4.3 Yield Surface 156 7.5 Hooke’s Law 157 7.5.1 General State of Stress 157 7.5.2 Principal Stresses 158 7.5.3 Displacements from Strains and Forces from Stresses 158 7.6 Plane Strain and Axial Symmetric Conditions 159 7.6.1 Plane Strain Condition 159 7.6.2 Axisymmetric Condition 160 7.7 Anisotropic, Elastic States 163 7.8 Stress and Strain States 164 7.8.1 Mohr’s Circle for Stress States 165 7.8.2 Mohr’s Circle for Strain States 166 7.9 Total and Effective Stresses 169 7.9.1 The Principle of Effective Stress 169 7.9.2 Effective Stresses Due to Geostatic Stress Fields 170 7.9.3 Effects of Capillarity 171 7.9.4 Effects of Seepage 172 7.10 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest 179 7.11 Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads 180 7.11.1 Point Load 181 7.11.2 Line Load 183 7.11.3 Line Load Near a Buried Earth-Retaining Structure 183 7.11.4 Strip Load 184 7.11.5 Uniformly Loaded Circular Area 185 7.11.6 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area 188 7.11.7 Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads 190 7.11.8 Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Area 193 7.11.9 Embankment Loads 195 7.11.10 Infinite Loads 196 7.12 Summary 196 Self-Assessment 196 Practical Examples 196 Exercises 199 CHAPTER 8 STRESS PATH 204 8.0 Introduction 204 8.1 Definitions of Key Terms 205 8.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 205 8.3 Stress and Strain Invariants 205 8.3.1 Mean Stress 205 8.3.2 Deviatoric or Shear Stress 205 8.3.3 Volumetric Strain 206 8.3.4 Deviatoric or Distortional or Shear Strain 206 8.3.5 Axisymmetric Condition, σ´₂ = σ´₃ or σ₂ = σ₃; ε₂ = ε₃ 206 8.3.6 Plane Strain, ε₂ = 0 206 8.3.7 Hooke’s Law Using Stress and Strain Invariants 207 8.4 Stress Paths 209 8.4.1 Basic Concept 209 8.4.2 Plotting Stress Paths Using Stress Invariants 210 8.4.3 Plotting Stress Paths Using Two-Dimensional Stress Parameters 214 8.4.4 Procedure for Plotting Stress Paths 215 8.5 Summary 221 Self-Assessment 221 Practical Example 221 Exercises 223 CHAPTER 9 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS 225 9.0 Introduction 225 9.1 Definitions of Key Terms 226 9.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 227 9.3 Basic Concepts 227 9.3.1 Instantaneous Load 228 9.3.2 Consolidation Under a Constant Load—Primary Consolidation 229 9.3.3 Secondary Compression 229 9.3.4 Drainage Path 230 9.3.5 Rate of Consolidation 230 9.3.6 Effective Stress Changes 230 9.3.7 Void Ratio and Settlement Changes Under a Constant Load 231 9.3.8 Effects of Vertical Stresses on Primary Consolidation 231 9.3.9 Primary Consolidation Parameters 232 9.3.10 Effects of Loading History 233 9.3.11 Overconsolidation Ratio 234 9.3.12 Possible and Impossible Consolidation Soil States 234 9.4 Calculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement 234 9.4.1 Effects of Unloading/Reloading of a Soil Sample Taken from the Field 234 9.4.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils 235 9.4.3 Primary Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils 236 9.4.4 Procedure to Calculate Primary Consolidation Settlement 236 9.4.5 Thick Soil Layers 237 9.5 One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory 243 9.5.1 Derivation of Governing Equation 243 9.5.2 Solution of Governing Consolidation Equation Using Fourier Series 245 9.5.3 Finite Difference Solution of the Governing Consolidation Equation 247 9.6 Secondary Compression Settlement 252 9.7 One-Dimensional Consolidation Laboratory Test 253 9.7.1 Oedometer Test 253 9.7.2 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation 254 9.7.3 Determination of Void Ratio at the End of a Loading Step 256 9.7.4 Determination of the Past Maximum Vertical Effective Stress 257 9.7.5 Determination of Compression and Recompression Indices 258 9.7.6 Determination of the Modulus of Volume Change 258 9.7.7 Determination of the Secondary Compression Index 259 9.8 Relationship Between Laboratory and Field Consolidation 261 9.9 Typical Values of Consolidation Settlement Parameters and Empirical Relationships 263 9.10 Preconsolidation of Soils Using Wick Drains 264 9.11 Summary 267 Self-Assessment 268 Practical Examples 268 Exercises 275 CHAPTER 10 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 279 10.0 Introduction 279 10.1 Definitions of Key Terms 280 10.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 280 10.3 Typical Response of Soils to Shearing Forces 280 10.3.1 Effects of Increasing the Normal Effective Stress 283 10.3.2 Effects of Overconsolidation Ratio 284 10.3.3 Effects of Drainage of Excess Porewater Pressure 285 10.3.4 Effects of Cohesion 285 10.3.5 Effects of Soil Tension 286 10.3.6 Effects of Cementation 287 10.4 Four Models for Interpreting the Shear Strength of Soils 287 10.4.1 Coulomb’s Failure Criterion 288 10.4.2 Taylor’s Failure Criterion 292 10.4.3 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion 293 10.4.4 Tresca Failure Criterion 295 10.5 Practical Implications of Failure Criteria 296 10.6 Interpretation of the Shear Strength of Soils 298 10.7 Laboratory Tests to Determine Shear Strength Parameters 304 10.7.1 A Simple Test to Determine Friction Angle of Clean, Coarse-Grained Soils 304 10.7.2 Shear Box or Direct Shear Test 304 10.7.3 Conventional Triaxial Apparatus 309 10.7.4 Unconfined Compression (UC) Test 311 10.7.5 Consolidated Drained (CD) Compression Test 313 10.7.6 Consolidated Undrained (CU) Compression Test 318 10.7.7 Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test 322 10.8 Porewater Pressure Under Axisymmetric Undrained Loading 323 10.9 Other Laboratory Devices to Measure Shear Strength 325 10.9.1 Simple Shear Apparatuses 325 10.9.2 True Triaxial Apparatus 329 10.9.3 Hollow-Cylinder Apparatus 330 10.10 Field Tests 331 10.10.1 Vane Shear Test (VST) 331 10.10.2 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 331 10.10.3 Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) 332 10.11 Specifying Laboratory Strength Tests 332 10.12 Empirical Relationships for Shear Strength Parameters 332 10.13 Summary 334 Self-Assessment 334 Practical Examples 334 Exercises 338 CHAPTER 11 A CRITICAL STATE MODEL TO INTERPRET SOIL BEHAVIOR 342 11.0 Introduction 342 11.1 Definitions of Key Terms 343 11.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 343 11.3 Basic Concepts 344 11.3.1 Parameter Mapping 344 11.3.2 Failure Surface 346 11.3.3 Soil Yielding 346 11.3.4 Prediction of the Behavior of Normally Consolidated and Lightly Overconsolidated Soils Under Drained Condition 347 11.3.5 Prediction of the Behavior of Normally Consolidated and Lightly Overconsolidated Soils Under Undrained Condition 350 11.3.6 Prediction of the Behavior of Heavily Overconsolidated Soils Under Drained and Undrained Condition 353 11.3.7 Prediction of the Behavior of Coarse-Grained Soils Using CSM 355 11.3.8 Critical State Boundary 355 11.3.9 Volume Changes and Excess Porewater Pressures 356 11.3.10 Effects of Effective and Total Stress Paths 356 11.4 Elements of the Critical State Model 357 11.4.1 Yield Surface 357 11.4.2 Critical State Parameters 358 11.5 Failure Stresses from the Critical State Model 363 11.5.1 Drained Triaxial Test 363 11.5.2 Undrained Triaxial Test 365 11.6 Modifications of CSM and Their Practical Implications 379 11.7 Relationships from CSM that Are of Practical Significance 383 11.7.1 Relationship Between Normalized Yield (peak) Shear Stress and Critical State Shear Stress Under Triaxial Drained Condition 383 11.7.2 Relationship Among the Tension Cutoff, Mean Effective Stress, and Preconsolidation Stress 385 11.7.3 Relationship Among Undrained Shear Strength, Critical State Friction Angle, and Preconsolidation Ratio 387 11.7.4 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength at the Critical State for Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils 388 11.7.5 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength of One-Dimensionally Consolidated or K[sub o]-Consolidated and Isotropically Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils 389 11.7.6 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength at Initial Yield and at Critical State for Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils Under Triaxial Test Condition 392 11.7.7 Undrained Shear Strength Under Direct Simple Shear (plane strain) Condition 394 11.7.8 Relationship Between Direct Simple Shear Tests and Triaxial Tests 395 11.7.9 Relationship for the Application of Drained and Undrained Conditions in the Analysis of Geosystems 396 11.7.10 Relationship Among Excess Porewater Pressure, Preconsolidation Ratio, and Critical State Friction Angle 399 11.7.11 Undrained Shear Strength of Clays at the Liquid and Plastic Limits 400 11.7.12 Vertical Effective Stresses at the Liquid and Plastic Limits 400 11.7.13 Compressibility Indices (λ and C[sub(c)] and Plasticity Index 400 11.7.14 Undrained Shear Strength, Liquidity Index, and Sensitivity 401 11.7.15 Summary of Relationships Among Some Soil Parameters from CSM 401 11.8 Soil Stiffness 407 11.9 Strains from the Critical State Model 411 11.9.1 Volumetric Strains 411 11.9.2 Shear Strains 413 11.10 Calculated Stress–Strain Response 417 11.10.1 Drained Compression Tests 418 11.10.2 Undrained Compression Tests 418 11.11 Application of CSM to Cemented Soils 425 11.12 Summary 426 Self-Assessment 427 Practical Examples 427 Exercises 436 CHAPTER 12 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS AND SETTLEMENT OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 440 12.0 Introduction 440 12.1 Definitions of Key Terms 441 12.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 442 12.3 Allowable Stress and Load and Resistance Factor Design 443 12.4 Basic Concepts 444 12.4.1 Soil Response to a Loaded Footing 444 12.4.2 Conventional Failure Surface Under Footing 446 12.5 Collapse Load Using the Limit Equilibrium Method 447 12.6 Bearing Capacity Equations 449 12.7 Mat Foundations 461 12.8 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soils 463 12.9 Building Codes Bearing Capacity Values 465 12.10 Settlement 466 12.11 Settlement Calculations 468 12.11.1 Immediate Settlement 468 12.11.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement 472 12.12 Determination of Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Coarse-Grained Soils from Field Tests 475 12.12.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 475 12.12.2 Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 478 12.12.3 Plate Load Test (PLT) 481 12.13 Shallow Foundation Analysis Using CSM 482 12.13.1 Heavily Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soil 483 12.13.2 Dense, Coarse-Grained Soils 489 12.14 Horizontal Elastic Displacement and Rotation 503 12.15 Summary 504 Self-Assessment 505 Practical Examples 505 Exercises 524 CHAPTER 13 PILE FOUNDATIONS 527 13.0 Introduction 527 13.1 Definitions of Key Terms 527 13.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 528 13.3 Types of Piles and Installations 529 13.3.1 Concrete Piles 530 13.3.2 Steel Piles 530 13.3.3 Timber Piles 530 13.3.4 Plastic Piles 530 13.3.5 Composites 530 13.3.6 Pile Installation 532 13.4 Basic Concept 533 13.5 Load Capacity of Single Piles 539 13.6 Pile Load Test (ASTM D 1143) 540 13.7 Methods Using Statics for Driven Piles 549 13.7.1 α-Method 549 13.7.2 β-Method 550 13.8 Pile Load Capacity of Driven Piles Based on SPT and CPT Results 557 13.8.1 SPT 558 13.8.2 CPT 558 13.9 Load Capacity of Drilled Shafts 562 13.10 Pile Groups 564 13.11 Elastic Settlement of Piles 570 13.12 Consolidation Settlement Under a Pile Group 572 13.13 Procedure to Estimate Settlement of Single and Group Piles 573 13.14 Settlement of Drilled Shafts 577 13.15 Piles Subjected to Negative Skin Friction 578 13.16 Pile-Driving Formulas and Wave Equation 580 13.17 Laterally Loaded Piles 581 13.18 Micropiles 585 13.19 Summary 586 Self-Assessment 586 Practical Examples 586 Exercises 593 CHAPTER 14 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS 597 14.0 Introduction 597 14.1 Definitions of Key Terms 597 14.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 598 14.3 Two-Dimensional Flow of Water Through Porous Media 598 14.4 Flownet Sketching 601 14.4.1 Criteria for Sketching Flownets 601 14.4.2 Flownet for Isotropic Soils 601 14.4.3 Flownet for Anisotropic Soil 603 14.5 Interpretation of Flownet 604 14.5.1 Flow Rate 604 14.5.2 Hydraulic Gradient 604 14.5.3 Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, and Piping 604 14.5.4 Critical Hydraulic Gradient 605 14.5.5 Porewater Pressure Distribution 605 14.5.6 Uplift Forces 605 14.6 Finite Difference Solution for Two-Dimensional Flow 610 14.7 Flow Through Earth Dams 616 14.8 Soil Filtration 620 14.9 Summary 621 Self-Assessment 621 Practical Examples 621 Exercises 624 CHAPTER 15 STABILITY OF EARTH-RETAINING STRUCTURES 628 15.0 Introduction 628 15.1 Definitions of Key Terms 629 15.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 629 15.3 Basic Concepts of Lateral Earth Pressures 630 15.4 Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory 638 15.5 Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure for a Sloping Backfill and a Sloping Wall Face 641 15.6 Lateral Earth Pressures for a Total Stress Analysis 643 15.7 Application of Lateral Earth Pressures to Retaining Walls 645 15.8 Types of Retaining Walls and Modes of Failure 648 15.9 Stability of Rigid Retaining Walls 651 15.9.1 Translation 651 15.9.2 Rotation 652 15.9.3 Bearing Capacity 652 15.9.4 Deep-Seated Failure 652 15.9.5 Seepage 653 15.9.6 Procedures to Analyze Rigid Retaining Walls 653 15.10 Stability of Flexible Retaining Walls 661 15.10.1 Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls in Uniform Soils 661 15.10.2 Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls in Mixed Soils 663 15.10.3 Consideration of Tension Cracks in Fine-Grained Soils 663 15.10.4 Methods of Analyses 664 15.10.5 Analysis of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls 666 15.10.6 Analysis of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls 666 15.11 Braced Excavation 677 15.12 Mechanical Stabilized Earth Walls 684 15.12.1 Basic Concepts 685 15.12.2 Stability of Mechanical Stabilized Earth Walls 685 15.13 Other Types of Retaining Walls 693 15.13.1 Modular Gravity Walls 693 15.13.2 In Situ Reinforced Walls 694 15.13.3 Chemically Stabilized Earth Walls (CSE) 694 15.14 Summary 694 Self-Assessment 694 Practical Examples 694 Exercises 700 CHAPTER 16 SLOPE STABILITY 705 16.0 Introduction 705 16.1 Definitions of Key Terms 705 16.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 706 16.3 Some Types of Slope Failure 706 16.4 Some Causes of Slope Failure 707 16.4.1 Erosion 707 16.4.2 Rainfall 709 16.4.3 Earthquakes 709 16.4.4 Geological Features 709 16.4.5 External Loading 709 16.4.6 Construction Activities 709 16.4.7 Rapid Drawdown 710 16.5 Infinite Slopes 710 16.6 Two-Dimensional Slope Stability Analyses 715 16.7 Rotational Slope Failures 715 16.8 Method of Slices 717 16.8.1 Bishop’s Method 717 16.8.2 Janbu’s Method 720 16.8.3 Cemented Soils 721 16.9 Application of the Method of Slices 722 16.10 Procedure for the Method of Slices 723 16.11 Stability of Slopes with Simple Geometry 731 16.11.1 Taylor’s Method 731 16.11.2 Bishop–Morgenstern Method 732 16.12 Factor of Safety (FS) 733 16.13 Summary 734 Self-Assessment 734 Practical Example 734 Exercises 737 APPENDIX A: A COLLECTION OF FREQUENTLY USED SOIL PARAMETERS AND CORRELATIONS 741 APPENDIX B: DISTRIBUTION OF VERTICAL STRESS AND ELASTIC DISPLACEMENT UNDER A UNIFORM CIRCULAR LOAD 748 APPENDIX C: DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE STRESSES WITHIN FINITE SOIL LAYERS 749 APPENDIX D: LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (KERISEL AND ABSI, 1990) 752 REFERENCES 756 INDEX 760 Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright 4 PREFACE 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 6 NOTES FOR STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS 7 NOTES FOR INSTRUCTORS 9 CONTENTS 12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 19 1.0 Introduction 19 1.1 Marvels of Civil Engineering—The Hidden Truth 20 1.2 Geotechnical Lessons from Failures 21 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS 23 2.0 Introduction 23 2.1 Definitions of Key Terms 23 2.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 24 2.3 Basic Geology 24 2.3.1 Earth’s Profile 24 2.3.2 Plate Tectonics 24 2.3.3 Composition of the Earth’s Crust 25 2.3.4 Discontinuities 26 2.3.5 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time 26 2.4 Composition of Soils 28 2.4.1 Soil Formation 28 2.4.2 Soil Types 28 2.4.3 Clay Minerals 29 2.4.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water 30 2.4.5 Soil Fabric 31 2.5 Determination of Particle Size of Soils - ASTM D 422 33 2.5.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils 33 2.5.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils 34 2.5.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size 35 2.6 Comparison of Coarse-Grained and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use 42 2.7 Summary 42 Self-Assessment 43 Exercises 43 CHAPTER 3 SOILS INVESTIGATION 44 3.0 Introduction 44 3.1 Definitions of Key Terms 45 3.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 45 3.3 Purposes of a Soils Investigation 45 3.4 Phases of a Soils Investigation 45 3.5 Soils Exploration Program 47 3.5.1 Soils Exploration Methods 47 3.5.2 Soil Identification in the Field 50 3.5.3 Number and Depths of Boreholes 52 3.5.4 Soil Sampling 53 3.5.5 Groundwater Conditions 54 3.5.6 Soils Laboratory Tests 55 3.5.7 Types of In Situ or Field Tests 55 3.5.8 Types of Laboratory Tests 61 3.6 Soils Report 64 3.7 Summary 65 Self-Assessment 65 Exercises 65 CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL SOIL STATES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION 66 4.0 Introduction 66 4.1 Definitions of Key Terms 67 4.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 67 4.3 Phase Relationships 68 4.4 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-Grained Soils 79 4.5 Determination of the Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits 82 4.5.1 Casagrande Cup Method—ASTM D 4318 82 4.5.2 Plastic Limit Test—ASTM D 4318 83 4.5.3 Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits 83 4.5.4 Shrinkage Limit—ASTM D 427 and D 4943 84 4.6 Soil Classification Schemes 88 4.6.1 Unified Soil Classification System 89 4.6.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Classification System 89 4.6.3 AASHTO Soil Classification System 92 4.6.4 Plasticity Chart 94 4.7 Engineering Use Chart 94 4.8 Summary 98 Self-Assessment 99 Practical Examples 99 Exercises 101 CHAPTER 5 SOIL COMPACTION 105 5.0 Introduction 105 5.1 Definitions of Key Terms 106 5.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 106 5.3 Basic Concept 106 5.4 Proctor Compaction Test—ASTM D 1140 and ASTM D 1557 107 5.5 Interpretation of Proctor Test Results 109 5.6 Benefits of Soil Compaction 113 5.7 Field Compaction 114 5.8 Compaction Quality Control 115 5.8.1 Sand Cone—ASTM D 1556 115 5.8.2 Balloon Test—ASTM D 2167 118 5.8.3 Nuclear Density Meter—ASTM D 2922, ASTM D 5195 118 5.8.4 Comparison Among the Popular Compaction Quality Control Tests 119 5.9 Summary 120 Self-Assessment 120 Practical Example 120 Exercises 121 CHAPTER 6 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS 123 6.0 Introduction 123 6.1 Definitions of Key Terms 123 6.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 123 6.3 Head and Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 124 6.4 Darcy’s Law 127 6.5 Empirical Relationships for k 129 6.6 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers 134 6.7 Flow Normal to Soil Layers 135 6.8 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity 135 6.9 Determination of the Hydraulic Conductivity 136 6.9.1 Constant-Head Test 136 6.9.2 Falling-Head Test 137 6.9.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Hydraulic Conductivity 140 6.10 Groundwater Lowering by Wellpoints 142 6.11 Summary 144 Self-Assessment 144 Practical Example 144 Exercises 145 CHAPTER 7 STRESSES, STRAINS, AND ELASTIC DEFORMATIONS OF SOILS 149 7.0 Introduction 149 7.1 Definitions of Key Terms 151 7.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 151 7.3 Stresses and Strains 151 7.3.1 Normal Stresses and Strains 151 7.3.2 Volumetric Strain 152 7.3.3 Shear Stresses and Shear Strains 152 7.4 Idealized Stress–Strain Response and Yielding 153 7.4.1 Material Responses to Normal Loading and Unloading 153 7.4.2 Material Response to Shear Forces 155 7.4.3 Yield Surface 156 7.5 Hooke’s Law 157 7.5.1 General State of Stress 157 7.5.2 Principal Stresses 158 7.5.3 Displacements from Strains and Forces from Stresses 158 7.6 Plane Strain and Axial Symmetric Conditions 159 7.6.1 Plane Strain Condition 159 7.6.2 Axisymmetric Condition 160 7.7 Anisotropic, Elastic States 163 7.8 Stress and Strain States 164 7.8.1 Mohr’s Circle for Stress States 165 7.8.2 Mohr’s Circle for Strain States 166 7.9 Total and Effective Stresses 169 7.9.1 The Principle of Effective Stress 169 7.9.2 Effective Stresses Due to Geostatic Stress Fields 170 7.9.3 Effects of Capillarity 171 7.9.4 Effects of Seepage 172 7.10 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest 179 7.11 Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads 180 7.11.1 Point Load 181 7.11.2 Line Load 183 7.11.3 Line Load Near a Buried Earth-Retaining Structure 183 7.11.4 Strip Load 184 7.11.5 Uniformly Loaded Circular Area 185 7.11.6 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area 188 7.11.7 Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads 190 7.11.8 Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Area 193 7.11.9 Embankment Loads 195 7.11.10 Infinite Loads 196 7.12 Summary 196 Self-Assessment 196 Practical Examples 196 Exercises 199 CHAPTER 8 STRESS PATH 204 8.0 Introduction 204 8.1 Definitions of Key Terms 205 8.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 205 8.3 Stress and Strain Invariants 205 8.3.1 Mean Stress 205 8.3.2 Deviatoric or Shear Stress 205 8.3.3 Volumetric Strain 206 8.3.4 Deviatoric or Distortional or Shear Strain 206 8.3.5 Axisymmetric Condition, σ ́2 = σ ́3 or σ2 = σ3; ε2 = ε3 206 8.3.6 Plane Strain, ε2 = 0 206 8.3.7 Hooke’s Law Using Stress and Strain Invariants 207 8.4 Stress Paths 209 8.4.1 Basic Concept 209 8.4.2 Plotting Stress Paths Using Stress Invariants 210 8.4.3 Plotting Stress Paths Using Two-Dimensional Stress Parameters 214 8.4.4 Procedure for Plotting Stress Paths 215 8.5 Summary 221 Self-Assessment 221 Practical Example 221 Exercises 223 CHAPTER 9 ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS 225 9.0 Introduction 225 9.1 Definitions of Key Terms 226 9.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 227 9.3 Basic Concepts 227 9.3.1 Instantaneous Load 228 9.3.2 Consolidation Under a Constant Load—Primary Consolidation 229 9.3.3 Secondary Compression 229 9.3.4 Drainage Path 230 9.3.5 Rate of Consolidation 230 9.3.6 Effective Stress Changes 230 9.3.7 Void Ratio and Settlement Changes Under a Constant Load 231 9.3.8 Effects of Vertical Stresses on Primary Consolidation 231 9.3.9 Primary Consolidation Parameters 232 9.3.10 Effects of Loading History 233 9.3.11 Overconsolidation Ratio 234 9.3.12 Possible and Impossible Consolidation Soil States 234 9.4 Calculation of Primary Consolidation Settlement 234 9.4.1 Effects of Unloading/Reloading of a Soil Sample Taken from the Field 234 9.4.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils 235 9.4.3 Primary Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils 236 9.4.4 Procedure to Calculate Primary Consolidation Settlement 236 9.4.5 Thick Soil Layers 237 9.5 One-Dimensional Consolidation Theory 243 9.5.1 Derivation of Governing Equation 243 9.5.2 Solution of Governing Consolidation Equation Using Fourier Series 245 9.5.3 Finite Difference Solution of the Governing Consolidation Equation 247 9.6 Secondary Compression Settlement 252 9.7 One-Dimensional Consolidation Laboratory Test 253 9.7.1 Oedometer Test 253 9.7.2 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation 254 9.7.3 Determination of Void Ratio at the End of a Loading Step 256 9.7.4 Determination of the Past Maximum Vertical Effective Stress 257 9.7.5 Determination of Compression and Recompression Indices 258 9.7.6 Determination of the Modulus of Volume Change 258 9.7.7 Determination of the Secondary Compression Index 259 9.8 Relationship Between Laboratory and Field Consolidation 261 9.9 Typical Values of Consolidation Settlement Parameters and Empirical Relationships 263 9.10 Preconsolidation of Soils Using Wick Drains 264 9.11 Summary 267 Self-Assessment 268 Practical Examples 268 Exercises 275 CHAPTER 10 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 279 10.0 Introduction 279 10.1 Definitions of Key Terms 280 10.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 280 10.3 Typical Response of Soils to Shearing Forces 280 10.3.1 Effects of Increasing the Normal Effective Stress 283 10.3.2 Effects of Overconsolidation Ratio 284 10.3.3 Effects of Drainage of Excess Porewater Pressure 285 10.3.4 Effects of Cohesion 285 10.3.5 Effects of Soil Tension 286 10.3.6 Effects of Cementation 287 10.4 Four Models for Interpreting the Shear Strength of Soils 287 10.4.1 Coulomb’s Failure Criterion 288 10.4.2 Taylor’s Failure Criterion 292 10.4.3 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion 293 10.4.4 Tresca Failure Criterion 295 10.5 Practical Implications of Failure Criteria 296 10.6 Interpretation of the Shear Strength of Soils 298 10.7 Laboratory Tests to Determine Shear Strength Parameters 304 10.7.1 A Simple Test to Determine Friction Angle of Clean, Coarse-Grained Soils 304 10.7.2 Shear Box or Direct Shear Test 304 10.7.3 Conventional Triaxial Apparatus 309 10.7.4 Unconfined Compression (UC) Test 311 10.7.5 Consolidated Drained (CD) Compression Test 313 10.7.6 Consolidated Undrained (CU) Compression Test 318 10.7.7 Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test 322 10.8 Porewater Pressure Under Axisymmetric Undrained Loading 323 10.9 Other Laboratory Devices to Measure Shear Strength 325 10.9.1 Simple Shear Apparatuses 325 10.9.2 True Triaxial Apparatus 329 10.9.3 Hollow-Cylinder Apparatus 330 10.10 Field Tests 331 10.10.1 Vane Shear Test (VST) 331 10.10.2 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 331 10.10.3 Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) 332 10.11 Specifying Laboratory Strength Tests 332 10.12 Empirical Relationships for Shear Strength Parameters 332 10.13 Summary 334 Self-Assessment 334 Practical Examples 334 Exercises 338 CHAPTER 11 A CRITICAL STATE MODEL TO INTERPRET SOIL BEHAVIOR 342 11.0 Introduction 342 11.1 Definitions of Key Terms 343 11.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 343 11.3 Basic Concepts 344 11.3.1 Parameter Mapping 344 11.3.2 Failure Surface 346 11.3.3 Soil Yielding 346 11.3.4 Prediction of the Behavior of Normally Consolidated and Lightly Overconsolidated Soils Under Drained Condition 347 11.3.5 Prediction of the Behavior of Normally Consolidated and Lightly Overconsolidated Soils Under Undrained Condition 350 11.3.6 Prediction of the Behavior of Heavily Overconsolidated Soils Under Drained and Undrained Condition 353 11.3.7 Prediction of the Behavior of Coarse-Grained Soils Using CSM 355 11.3.8 Critical State Boundary 355 11.3.9 Volume Changes and Excess Porewater Pressures 356 11.3.10 Effects of Effective and Total Stress Paths 356 11.4 Elements of the Critical State Model 357 11.4.1 Yield Surface 357 11.4.2 Critical State Parameters 358 11.5 Failure Stresses from the Critical State Model 363 11.5.1 Drained Triaxial Test 363 11.5.2 Undrained Triaxial Test 365 11.6 Modifications of CSM and Their Practical Implications 379 11.7 Relationships from CSM that Are of Practical Significance 383 11.7.1 Relationship Between Normalized Yield (peak) Shear Stress and Critical State Shear Stress Under Triaxial Drained Condition 383 11.7.2 Relationship Among the Tension Cutoff, Mean Effective Stress, and Preconsolidation Stress 385 11.7.3 Relationship Among Undrained Shear Strength, Critical State Friction Angle, and Preconsolidation Ratio 387 11.7.4 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength at the Critical State for Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils 388 11.7.5 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength of One-Dimensionally Consolidated or K[sub o]-Consolidated and Isotropically Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils 389 11.7.6 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength at Initial Yield and at Critical State for Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils Under Triaxial Test Condition 392 11.7.7 Undrained Shear Strength Under Direct Simple Shear (plane strain) Condition 394 11.7.8 Relationship Between Direct Simple Shear Tests and Triaxial Tests 395 11.7.9 Relationship for the Application of Drained and Undrained Conditions in the Analysis of Geosystems 396 11.7.10 Relationship Among Excess Porewater Pressure, Preconsolidation Ratio, and Critical State Friction Angle 399 11.7.11 Undrained Shear Strength of Clays at the Liquid and Plastic Limits 400 11.7.12 Vertical Effective Stresses at the Liquid and Plastic Limits 400 11.7.13 Compressibility Indices (λ and C[sub(c)] and Plasticity Index 400 11.7.14 Undrained Shear Strength, Liquidity Index, and Sensitivity 401 11.7.15 Summary of Relationships Among Some Soil Parameters from CSM 401 11.8 Soil Stiffness 407 11.9 Strains from the Critical State Model 411 11.9.1 Volumetric Strains 411 11.9.2 Shear Strains 413 11.10 Calculated Stress–Strain Response 417 11.10.1 Drained Compression Tests 418 11.10.2 Undrained Compression Tests 418 11.11 Application of CSM to Cemented Soils 425 11.12 Summary 426 Self-Assessment 427 Practical Examples 427 Exercises 436 CHAPTER 12 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS AND SETTLEMENT OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS 440 12.0 Introduction 440 12.1 Definitions of Key Terms 441 12.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 442 12.3 Allowable Stress and Load and Resistance Factor Design 443 12.4 Basic Concepts 444 12.4.1 Soil Response to a Loaded Footing 444 12.4.2 Conventional Failure Surface Under Footing 446 12.5 Collapse Load Using the Limit Equilibrium Method 447 12.6 Bearing Capacity Equations 449 12.7 Mat Foundations 461 12.8 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soils 463 12.9 Building Codes Bearing Capacity Values 465 12.10 Settlement 466 12.11 Settlement Calculations 468 12.11.1 Immediate Settlement 468 12.11.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement 472 12.12 Determination of Bearing Capacity and Settlement of Coarse-Grained Soils from Field Tests 475 12.12.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 475 12.12.2 Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 478 12.12.3 Plate Load Test (PLT) 481 12.13 Shallow Foundation Analysis Using CSM 482 12.13.1 Heavily Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soil 483 12.13.2 Dense, Coarse-Grained Soils 489 12.14 Horizontal Elastic Displacement and Rotation 503 12.15 Summary 504 Self-Assessment 505 Practical Examples 505 Exercises 524 CHAPTER 13 PILE FOUNDATIONS 527 13.0 Introduction 527 13.1 Definitions of Key Terms 527 13.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 528 13.3 Types of Piles and Installations 529 13.3.1 Concrete Piles 530 13.3.2 Steel Piles 530 13.3.3 Timber Piles 530 13.3.4 Plastic Piles 530 13.3.5 Composites 530 13.3.6 Pile Installation 532 13.4 Basic Concept 533 13.5 Load Capacity of Single Piles 539 13.6 Pile Load Test (ASTM D 1143) 540 13.7 Methods Using Statics for Driven Piles 549 13.7.1 α-Method 549 13.7.2 β-Method 550 13.8 Pile Load Capacity of Driven Piles Based on SPT and CPT Results 557 13.8.1 SPT 558 13.8.2 CPT 558 13.9 Load Capacity of Drilled Shafts 562 13.10 Pile Groups 564 13.11 Elastic Settlement of Piles 570 13.12 Consolidation Settlement Under a Pile Group 572 13.13 Procedure to Estimate Settlement of Single and Group Piles 573 13.14 Settlement of Drilled Shafts 577 13.15 Piles Subjected to Negative Skin Friction 578 13.16 Pile-Driving Formulas and Wave Equation 580 13.17 Laterally Loaded Piles 581 13.18 Micropiles 585 13.19 Summary 586 Self-Assessment 586 Practical Examples 586 Exercises 593 CHAPTER 14 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS 597 14.0 Introduction 597 14.1 Definitions of Key Terms 597 14.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 598 14.3 Two-Dimensional Flow of Water Through Porous Media 598 14.4 Flownet Sketching 601 14.4.1 Criteria for Sketching Flownets 601 14.4.2 Flownet for Isotropic Soils 601 14.4.3 Flownet for Anisotropic Soil 603 14.5 Interpretation of Flownet 604 14.5.1 Flow Rate 604 14.5.2 Hydraulic Gradient 604 14.5.3 Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, and Piping 604 14.5.4 Critical Hydraulic Gradient 605 14.5.5 Porewater Pressure Distribution 605 14.5.6 Uplift Forces 605 14.6 Finite Difference Solution for Two-Dimensional Flow 610 14.7 Flow Through Earth Dams 616 14.8 Soil Filtration 620 14.9 Summary 621 Self-Assessment 621 Practical Examples 621 Exercises 624 CHAPTER 15 STABILITY OF EARTH-RETAINING STRUCTURES 628 15.0 Introduction 628 15.1 Definitions of Key Terms 629 15.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 629 15.3 Basic Concepts of Lateral Earth Pressures 630 15.4 Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory 638 15.5 Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure for a Sloping Backfill and a Sloping Wall Face 641 15.6 Lateral Earth Pressures for a Total Stress Analysis 643 15.7 Application of Lateral Earth Pressures to Retaining Walls 645 15.8 Types of Retaining Walls and Modes of Failure 648 15.9 Stability of Rigid Retaining Walls 651 15.9.1 Translation 651 15.9.2 Rotation 652 15.9.3 Bearing Capacity 652 15.9.4 Deep-Seated Failure 652 15.9.5 Seepage 653 15.9.6 Procedures to Analyze Rigid Retaining Walls 653 15.10 Stability of Flexible Retaining Walls 661 15.10.1 Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls in Uniform Soils 661 15.10.2 Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls in Mixed Soils 663 15.10.3 Consideration of Tension Cracks in Fine-Grained Soils 663 15.10.4 Methods of Analyses 664 15.10.5 Analysis of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls 666 15.10.6 Analysis of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls 666 15.11 Braced Excavation 677 15.12 Mechanical Stabilized Earth Walls 684 15.12.1 Basic Concepts 685 15.12.2 Stability of Mechanical Stabilized Earth Walls 685 15.13 Other Types of Retaining Walls 693 15.13.1 Modular Gravity Walls 693 15.13.2 In Situ Reinforced Walls 694 15.13.3 Chemically Stabilized Earth Walls (CSE) 694 15.14 Summary 694 Self-Assessment 694 Practical Examples 694 Exercises 700 CHAPTER 16 SLOPE STABILITY 705 16.0 Introduction 705 16.1 Definitions of Key Terms 705 16.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading 706 16.3 Some Types of Slope Failure 706 16.4 Some Causes of Slope Failure 707 16.4.1 Erosion 707 16.4.2 Rainfall 709 16.4.3 Earthquakes 709 16.4.4 Geological Features 709 16.4.5 External Loading 709 16.4.6 Construction Activities 709 16.4.7 Rapid Drawdown 710 16.5 Infinite Slopes 710 16.6 Two-Dimensional Slope Stability Analyses 715 16.7 Rotational Slope Failures 715 16.8 Method of Slices 717 16.8.1 Bishop’s Method 717 16.8.2 Janbu’s Method 720 16.8.3 Cemented Soils 721 16.9 Application of the Method of Slices 722 16.10 Procedure for the Method of Slices 723 16.11 Stability of Slopes with Simple Geometry 731 16.11.1 Taylor’s Method 731 16.11.2 Bishop–Morgenstern Method 732 16.12 Factor of Safety (FS) 733 16.13 Summary 734 Self-Assessment 734 Practical Example 734 Exercises 737 APPENDIX A: A COLLECTION OF FREQUENTLY USED SOIL PARAMETERS AND CORRELATIONS 741 APPENDIX B: DISTRIBUTION OF VERTICAL STRESS AND ELASTIC DISPLACEMENT UNDER A UNIFORM CIRCULAR LOAD 748 APPENDIX C: DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE STRESSES WITHIN FINITE SOIL LAYERS 749 APPENDIX D: LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (KERISEL AND ABSI, 1990) 752 REFERENCES 756 INDEX 760 Cover......Page 1 Title Page......Page 3 Copyright......Page 4 PREFACE......Page 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 6 NOTES FOR STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS......Page 7 NOTES FOR INSTRUCTORS......Page 9 CONTENTS......Page 12 1.0 Introduction......Page 19 1.1 Marvels of Civil Engineering—The Hidden Truth......Page 20 1.2 Geotechnical Lessons from Failures......Page 21 2.1 Definitions of Key Terms......Page 23 2.3.2 Plate Tectonics......Page 24 2.3.3 Composition of the Earth’s Crust......Page 25 2.3.5 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time......Page 26 2.4.2 Soil Types......Page 28 2.4.3 Clay Minerals......Page 29 2.4.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water......Page 30 2.4.5 Soil Fabric......Page 31 2.5.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils......Page 33 2.5.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils......Page 34 2.5.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size......Page 35 2.7 Summary......Page 42 Exercises......Page 43 3.0 Introduction......Page 44 3.4 Phases of a Soils Investigation......Page 45 3.5.1 Soils Exploration Methods......Page 47 3.5.2 Soil Identification in the Field......Page 50 3.5.3 Number and Depths of Boreholes......Page 52 3.5.4 Soil Sampling......Page 53 3.5.5 Groundwater Conditions......Page 54 3.5.7 Types of In Situ or Field Tests......Page 55 3.5.8 Types of Laboratory Tests......Page 61 3.6 Soils Report......Page 64 Exercises......Page 65 4.0 Introduction......Page 66 4.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading......Page 67 4.3 Phase Relationships......Page 68 4.4 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-Grained Soils......Page 79 4.5.1 Casagrande Cup Method—ASTM D 4318......Page 82 4.5.3 Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits......Page 83 4.5.4 Shrinkage Limit—ASTM D 427 and D 4943......Page 84 4.6 Soil Classification Schemes......Page 88 4.6.2 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Classification System......Page 89 4.6.3 AASHTO Soil Classification System......Page 92 4.7 Engineering Use Chart......Page 94 4.8 Summary......Page 98 Practical Examples......Page 99 Exercises......Page 101 5.0 Introduction......Page 105 5.3 Basic Concept......Page 106 5.4 Proctor Compaction Test—ASTM D 1140 and ASTM D 1557......Page 107 5.5 Interpretation of Proctor Test Results......Page 109 5.6 Benefits of Soil Compaction......Page 113 5.7 Field Compaction......Page 114 5.8.1 Sand Cone—ASTM D 1556......Page 115 5.8.3 Nuclear Density Meter—ASTM D 2922, ASTM D 5195......Page 118 5.8.4 Comparison Among the Popular Compaction Quality Control Tests......Page 119 Practical Example......Page 120 Exercises......Page 121 6.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading......Page 123 6.3 Head and Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest......Page 124 6.4 Darcy’s Law......Page 127 6.5 Empirical Relationships for k......Page 129 6.6 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers......Page 134 6.8 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 135 6.9.1 Constant-Head Test......Page 136 6.9.2 Falling-Head Test......Page 137 6.9.3 Pumping Test to Determine the Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 140 6.10 Groundwater Lowering by Wellpoints......Page 142 Practical Example......Page 144 Exercises......Page 145 7.0 Introduction......Page 149 7.3.1 Normal Stresses and Strains......Page 151 7.3.3 Shear Stresses and Shear Strains......Page 152 7.4.1 Material Responses to Normal Loading and Unloading......Page 153 7.4.2 Material Response to Shear Forces......Page 155 7.4.3 Yield Surface......Page 156 7.5.1 General State of Stress......Page 157 7.5.3 Displacements from Strains and Forces from Stresses......Page 158 7.6.1 Plane Strain Condition......Page 159 7.6.2 Axisymmetric Condition......Page 160 7.7 Anisotropic, Elastic States......Page 163 7.8 Stress and Strain States......Page 164 7.8.1 Mohr’s Circle for Stress States......Page 165 7.8.2 Mohr’s Circle for Strain States......Page 166 7.9.1 The Principle of Effective Stress......Page 169 7.9.2 Effective Stresses Due to Geostatic Stress Fields......Page 170 7.9.3 Effects of Capillarity......Page 171 7.9.4 Effects of Seepage......Page 172 7.10 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest......Page 179 7.11 Stresses in Soil from Surface Loads......Page 180 7.11.1 Point Load......Page 181 7.11.3 Line Load Near a Buried Earth-Retaining Structure......Page 183 7.11.4 Strip Load......Page 184 7.11.5 Uniformly Loaded Circular Area......Page 185 7.11.6 Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area......Page 188 7.11.7 Approximate Method for Rectangular Loads......Page 190 7.11.8 Vertical Stress Below Arbitrarily Shaped Area......Page 193 7.11.9 Embankment Loads......Page 195 Practical Examples......Page 196 Exercises......Page 199 8.0 Introduction......Page 204 8.3.2 Deviatoric or Shear Stress......Page 205 8.3.6 Plane Strain, ε2 = 0......Page 206 8.3.7 Hooke’s Law Using Stress and Strain Invariants......Page 207 8.4.1 Basic Concept......Page 209 8.4.2 Plotting Stress Paths Using Stress Invariants......Page 210 8.4.3 Plotting Stress Paths Using Two-Dimensional Stress Parameters......Page 214 8.4.4 Procedure for Plotting Stress Paths......Page 215 Practical Example......Page 221 Exercises......Page 223 9.0 Introduction......Page 225 9.1 Definitions of Key Terms......Page 226 9.3 Basic Concepts......Page 227 9.3.1 Instantaneous Load......Page 228 9.3.3 Secondary Compression......Page 229 9.3.6 Effective Stress Changes......Page 230 9.3.8 Effects of Vertical Stresses on Primary Consolidation......Page 231 9.3.9 Primary Consolidation Parameters......Page 232 9.3.10 Effects of Loading History......Page 233 9.4.1 Effects of Unloading/Reloading of a Soil Sample Taken from the Field......Page 234 9.4.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils......Page 235 9.4.4 Procedure to Calculate Primary Consolidation Settlement......Page 236 9.4.5 Thick Soil Layers......Page 237 9.5.1 Derivation of Governing Equation......Page 243 9.5.2 Solution of Governing Consolidation Equation Using Fourier Series......Page 245 9.5.3 Finite Difference Solution of the Governing Consolidation Equation......Page 247 9.6 Secondary Compression Settlement......Page 252 9.7.1 Oedometer Test......Page 253 9.7.2 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation......Page 254 9.7.3 Determination of Void Ratio at the End of a Loading Step......Page 256 9.7.4 Determination of the Past Maximum Vertical Effective Stress......Page 257 9.7.6 Determination of the Modulus of Volume Change......Page 258 9.7.7 Determination of the Secondary Compression Index......Page 259 9.8 Relationship Between Laboratory and Field Consolidation......Page 261 9.9 Typical Values of Consolidation Settlement Parameters and Empirical Relationships......Page 263 9.10 Preconsolidation of Soils Using Wick Drains......Page 264 9.11 Summary......Page 267 Practical Examples......Page 268 Exercises......Page 275 10.0 Introduction......Page 279 10.3 Typical Response of Soils to Shearing Forces......Page 280 10.3.1 Effects of Increasing the Normal Effective Stress......Page 283 10.3.2 Effects of Overconsolidation Ratio......Page 284 10.3.4 Effects of Cohesion......Page 285 10.3.5 Effects of Soil Tension......Page 286 10.4 Four Models for Interpreting the Shear Strength of Soils......Page 287 10.4.1 Coulomb’s Failure Criterion......Page 288 10.4.2 Taylor’s Failure Criterion......Page 292 10.4.3 Mohr–Coulomb Failure Criterion......Page 293 10.4.4 Tresca Failure Criterion......Page 295 10.5 Practical Implications of Failure Criteria......Page 296 10.6 Interpretation of the Shear Strength of Soils......Page 298 10.7.2 Shear Box or Direct Shear Test......Page 304 10.7.3 Conventional Triaxial Apparatus......Page 309 10.7.4 Unconfined Compression (UC) Test......Page 311 10.7.5 Consolidated Drained (CD) Compression Test......Page 313 10.7.6 Consolidated Undrained (CU) Compression Test......Page 318 10.7.7 Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test......Page 322 10.8 Porewater Pressure Under Axisymmetric Undrained Loading......Page 323 10.9.1 Simple Shear Apparatuses......Page 325 10.9.2 True Triaxial Apparatus......Page 329 10.9.3 Hollow-Cylinder Apparatus......Page 330 10.10.2 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)......Page 331 10.12 Empirical Relationships for Shear Strength Parameters......Page 332 Practical Examples......Page 334 Exercises......Page 338 11.0 Introduction......Page 342 11.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading......Page 343 11.3.1 Parameter Mapping......Page 344 11.3.3 Soil Yielding......Page 346 11.3.4 Prediction of the Behavior of Normally Consolidated and Lightly Overconsolidated Soils Under Drained Condition......Page 347 11.3.5 Prediction of the Behavior of Normally Consolidated and Lightly Overconsolidated Soils Under Undrained Condition......Page 350 11.3.6 Prediction of the Behavior of Heavily Overconsolidated Soils Under Drained and Undrained Condition......Page 353 11.3.8 Critical State Boundary......Page 355 11.3.10 Effects of Effective and Total Stress Paths......Page 356 11.4.1 Yield Surface......Page 357 11.4.2 Critical State Parameters......Page 358 11.5.1 Drained Triaxial Test......Page 363 11.5.2 Undrained Triaxial Test......Page 365 11.6 Modifications of CSM and Their Practical Implications......Page 379 11.7.1 Relationship Between Normalized Yield (peak) Shear Stress and Critical State Shear Stress Under Triaxial Drained Condition......Page 383 11.7.2 Relationship Among the Tension Cutoff, Mean Effective Stress, and Preconsolidation Stress......Page 385 11.7.3 Relationship Among Undrained Shear Strength, Critical State Friction Angle, and Preconsolidation Ratio......Page 387 11.7.4 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength at the Critical State for Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils......Page 388 11.7.5 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength of One-Dimensionally Consolidated or K[sub o]-Consolidated and Isotropically Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils......Page 389 11.7.6 Relationship Between the Normalized Undrained Shear Strength at Initial Yield and at Critical State for Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils Under Triaxial Test Condition......Page 392 11.7.7 Undrained Shear Strength Under Direct Simple Shear (plane strain) Condition......Page 394 11.7.8 Relationship Between Direct Simple Shear Tests and Triaxial Tests......Page 395 11.7.9 Relationship for the Application of Drained and Undrained Conditions in the Analysis of Geosystems......Page 396 11.7.10 Relationship Among Excess Porewater Pressure, Preconsolidation Ratio, and Critical State Friction Angle......Page 399 11.7.13 Compressibility Indices (λ and C[sub(c)] and Plasticity Index......Page 400 11.7.15 Summary of Relationships Among Some Soil Parameters from CSM......Page 401 11.8 Soil Stiffness......Page 407 11.9.1 Volumetric Strains......Page 411 11.9.2 Shear Strains......Page 413 11.10 Calculated Stress–Strain Response......Page 417 11.10.2 Undrained Compression Tests......Page 418 11.11 Application of CSM to Cemented Soils......Page 425 11.12 Summary......Page 426 Practical Examples......Page 427 Exercises......Page 436 12.0 Introduction......Page 440 12.1 Definitions of Key Terms......Page 441 12.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading......Page 442 12.3 Allowable Stress and Load and Resistance Factor Design......Page 443 12.4.1 Soil Response to a Loaded Footing......Page 444 12.4.2 Conventional Failure Surface Under Footing......Page 446 12.5 Collapse Load Using the Limit Equilibrium Method......Page 447 12.6 Bearing Capacity Equations......Page 449 12.7 Mat Foundations......Page 461 12.8 Bearing Capacity of Layered Soils......Page 463 12.9 Building Codes Bearing Capacity Values......Page 465 12.10 Settlement......Page 466 12.11.1 Immediate Settlement......Page 468 12.11.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement......Page 472 12.12.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)......Page 475 12.12.2 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)......Page 478 12.12.3 Plate Load Test (PLT)......Page 481 12.13 Shallow Foundation Analysis Using CSM......Page 482 12.13.1 Heavily Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soil......Page 483 12.13.2 Dense, Coarse-Grained Soils......Page 489 12.14 Horizontal Elastic Displacement and Rotation......Page 503 12.15 Summary......Page 504 Practical Examples......Page 505 Exercises......Page 524 13.1 Definitions of Key Terms......Page 527 13.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading......Page 528 13.3 Types of Piles and Installations......Page 529 13.3.5 Composites......Page 530 13.3.6 Pile Installation......Page 532 13.4 Basic Concept......Page 533 13.5 Load Capacity of Single Piles......Page 539 13.6 Pile Load Test (ASTM D 1143)......Page 540 13.7.1 α-Method......Page 549 13.7.2 β-Method......Page 550 13.8 Pile Load Capacity of Driven Piles Based on SPT and CPT Results......Page 557 13.8.2 CPT......Page 558 13.9 Load Capacity of Drilled Shafts......Page 562 13.10 Pile Groups......Page 564 13.11 Elastic Settlement of Piles......Page 570 13.12 Consolidation Settlement Under a Pile Group......Page 572 13.13 Procedure to Estimate Settlement of Single and Group Piles......Page 573 13.14 Settlement of Drilled Shafts......Page 577 13.15 Piles Subjected to Negative Skin Friction......Page 578 13.16 Pile-Driving Formulas and Wave Equation......Page 580 13.17 Laterally Loaded Piles......Page 581 13.18 Micropiles......Page 585 Practical Examples......Page 586 Exercises......Page 593 14.1 Definitions of Key Terms......Page 597 14.3 Two-Dimensional Flow of Water Through Porous Media......Page 598 14.4.2 Flownet for Isotropic Soils......Page 601 14.4.3 Flownet for Anisotropic Soil......Page 603 14.5.3 Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling, and Piping......Page 604 14.5.6 Uplift Forces......Page 605 14.6 Finite Difference Solution for Two-Dimensional Flow......Page 610 14.7 Flow Through Earth Dams......Page 616 14.8 Soil Filtration......Page 620 Practical Examples......Page 621 Exercises......Page 624 15.0 Introduction......Page 628 15.2 Questions to Guide Your Reading......Page 629 15.3 Basic Concepts of Lateral Earth Pressures......Page 630 15.4 Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory......Page 638 15.5 Rankine’s Lateral Earth Pressure for a Sloping Backfill and a Sloping Wall Face......Page 641 15.6 Lateral Earth Pressures for a Total Stress Analysis......Page 643 15.7 Application of Lateral Earth Pressures to Retaining Walls......Page 645 15.8 Types of Retaining Walls and Modes of Failure......Page 648 15.9.1 Translation......Page 651 15.9.4 Deep-Seated Failure......Page 652 15.9.6 Procedures to Analyze Rigid Retaining Walls......Page 653 15.10.1 Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls in Uniform Soils......Page 661 15.10.3 Consideration of Tension Cracks in Fine-Grained Soils......Page 663 15.10.4 Methods of Analyses......Page 664 15.10.6 Analysis of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls......Page 666 15.11 Braced Excavation......Page 677 15.12 Mechanical Stabilized Earth Walls......Page 684 15.12.2 Stability of Mechanical Stabilized Earth Walls......Page 685 15.13.1 Modular Gravity Walls......Page 693 Practical Examples......Page 694 Exercises......Page 700 16.1 Definitions of Key Terms......Page 705 16.3 Some Types of Slope Failure......Page 706 16.4.1 Erosion......Page 707 16.4.6 Construction Activities......Page 709 16.5 Infinite Slopes......Page 710 16.7 Rotational Slope Failures......Page 715 16.8.1 Bishop’s Method......Page 717 16.8.2 Janbu’s Method......Page 720 16.8.3 Cemented Soils......Page 721 16.9 Application of the Method of Slices......Page 722 16.10 Procedure for the Method of Slices......Page 723 16.11.1 Taylor’s Method......Page 731 16.11.2 Bishop–Morgenstern Method......Page 732 16.12 Factor of Safety (FS)......Page 733 Practical Example......Page 734 Exercises......Page 737 APPENDIX A: A COLLECTION OF FREQUENTLY USED SOIL PARAMETERS AND CORRELATIONS......Page 741 APPENDIX B: DISTRIBUTION OF VERTICAL STRESS AND ELASTIC DISPLACEMENT UNDER A UNIFORM CIRCULAR LOAD......Page 748 APPENDIX C: DISTRIBUTION OF SURFACE STRESSES WITHIN FINITE SOIL LAYERS......Page 749 APPENDIX D: LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS (KERISEL AND ABSI, 1990)......Page 752 REFERENCES......Page 756 INDEX......Page 760 "Discover the Principles that Support the Practice Combining multimedia, realistic situations, clear explanations, and practical examples, Budhu's Second Edition of Soil Mechanics and Foundations helps you quickly master the key principles behind the practice of soil mechanics. Using language that is easy to understand, the text explains key concepts and principles in the context of basic mechanics, physics, and mathematics. Many worked-out examples illustrate problem-solving techniques step by step. You'll have many unique opportunities for interactive exploration, as you learn the fundamentals of soil mechanics, including: * How to characterize and classify soils * How to plan and conduct a soil investigation * The role of effective stresses, consolidation, shear strength, and critical state soil mechanics linking consolidation and shear strength * The effects of seepage on stability * How to estimate bearing capacity and settlement * How to analyze and design simple geotechnical systems Now revised, this Second Edition features a new chapter on basic geology, more examples and problems, shorter chapters, and a stronger integration with the resources on the accompanying CD. Users can follow different learning pathways depending on the educational goals. Multimedia resources provide a hands-on learning environment The CD packaged with this textbook includes: * Virtual soils laboratory * Interactive animations of basic concepts * Interactive problem solving * Interactive step-by-step examples * Electronic quizzes * Computer programs"-- "Discover the Principles that Support the Practice Combining multimedia, realistic situations, clear explanations, and practical examples, Budhu's Second Edition of Soil Mechanics and Foundations helps you quickly master the key principles behind the practice of soil mechanics. Using language that is easy to understand, the text explains key concepts and principles in the context of basic mechanics, physics, and mathematics. Many worked-out examples illustrate problem-solving techniques step by step. You'll have many unique opportunities for interactive exploration, as you learn the fundamentals of soil mechanics, including: * How to characterize and classify soils * How to plan and conduct a soil investigation * The role of effective stresses, consolidation, shear strength, and critical state soil mechanics linking consolidation and shear strength * The effects of seepage on stability * How to estimate bearing capacity and settlement * How to analyze and design simple geotechnical systems Now revised, this Second Edition features a new chapter on basic geology, more examples and problems, shorter chapters, and a stronger integration with the resources on the accompanying CD. Users can follow different learning pathways depending on the educational goals. Multimedia resources provide a hands-on learning environment The CD packaged with this textbook includes: * Virtual soils laboratory * Interactive animations of basic concepts * Interactive problem solving * Interactive step-by-step examples * Electronic quizzes * Computer programs"-- Provided by publisher Foundations and Earth Structures is written primarily for an undergraduate course in foundation analysis and design. It should also appeal to graduate students and practicing engineers. There are three primary objectives for this textbook. Firstly, to present basic concepts and fundamental principles that are necessary to understand the background of the methods employed in foundation design. Secondly, to inform students on the values and limitations of popular methods of analyses in foundation engineering. Thirdly, to provide a framework for students to carry out simple foundation design and appreciate the design process.

This is a textbook and not a design manual. Consequently, it emphasizes fundamentals rather than procedures. However, practical procedures, where appropriate, are included to allow students to transit into "office" design. The topics are sequenced so as not to rush the students into design but to build a solid foundation in the fundamentals so that they could understand the implications of the assumptions in the design.