Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. 2nd edition

London: SAGE publications, 2005. - 332 pages Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners, second edition is designed specifically for students with no previous experience or knowledge of research and research methodology. Contents Figures Tables Preface Research: a way of thinking Research: a way of examining your practice Applications of research Definitions of research Characteristics of research Types of research Application Objectives Inquiry mode Paradigms of research Summary The research process: a quick glance The research process: an eight-step model Steps in planning a research study Step I: formulating a research problem Step II: conceptualising a research design Step III: constructing an instrument for data collection Step IV: selectiilg a sample Step V: writing a research proposal Steps in conducting a study Step VI: collecting data. Step VII: processing data Step VIII: writing a research report Summary Step I Formulating a research problem Reviewing the literature Place of literature review in research Bring clarity and focus to your research problcm Improve your methodology Hroaden your lrnowledge base in your research area Contextualise your findings Procedure for reviewing the literature Search for existing literaturc Review the literature selected Develop a theoretical i'rurnc.work Uevelop a conceptual framework Writing up the literature reviewed Summary Formulating a research problem The research problem The importance of formulating a research problem Sources of research problems Considerations in selecting a research problem Steps in the formulation of a research problem The formulation of objectives Establishing operational definitions Summary Identifying variables The definition of a variable The difference between a concept and a variable Concepts, indicators and variables Types of variable From the viewpoint of causation From the viewpoint of the study design From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement Types of measurement scale The nominal or classificatory scale The ordinal or ranking scale The interval scale The ratio scale Summary Constructing hypotheses The definition of a hypothesis The functions of a hypothesis The characteristics of a hypothesis Types of hypothesis Errors in testing a hypothesis Summary Step II. Conceptualising a research design The research design The definition of a research design The functions of a research design Summary Selecting a study design Study designs based on the number of contacts The cross-sectional study design The before-and-after study design The longitudinal study design Study designs based on the reference period The retrospective study design The prospective study design The retrospective-prospective study design Study designs based on the nature of the investigation The experimental study designs Others-some commonly used study designs Action research Feminist research The cross-over comparative experimental design The replicated cross-sectional design Trend studies Cohort studies Panel studies Blind studies Double-blind studies Case studies Summary Step III. Constructing an instrument for data collection Selecting a method of data collection Methods of data collection Collecting data using primary sources Observa'tion Types of observation Problems with using observation as a method of data collection Situations in which observation can be made. The recording of observation The interview Unstructured interviews Structured interview The questionnaire Choosing between an interview schedule and a questionnaire Userent ways of administering a questionnaire Thc contents of diccoveling letter Advantages of a questionnaire Disadvantages of a questionnaire Advantages of the interview Disadvantages of thc interview Forms of question Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions Advantages and disadvantages of closed-ended questions Considerations in formulating questions The construction of a research instrument Asking personal and sensitive questions The order of questions Prerequisites for data collection Collecting data using secondary sources Problems with using data from secondary sources Summary Collecting data using attitudinal scales Functions of attitudinal scales Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale Types of attitudinal scale The summated rating or Likert scale The equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scale The cumulative or Guttman scale The relationship between attitudinal and measurement scales Summary Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument The concept of validity Types of validity Face and content validity Concurrent and predictive validity Construct validity The concept of reliability Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument Methods of determining the reliability of an instrument External consistency procedures Internal consistency procedures Summary Step IV. Selecting a sample Sampling l'he concept of sampling The concept of sampling in qualitative research Sampling terminology l'rinciples of sampling Factors affecting the inferences drawn from a sample Aims iq selecting a sample Typcs of sampling Randodprobability sampling designs Non-randodnon-probability sampling designs 'Mixed' sampling designs The calculation of sample size I Summary Step V. Writing a research proposal Writing a research proposal The research proposal Contents of a research proposal Preamble/introduction The problem Objectives of the study Hypotheses to be tested Study design The setting Measurement procedures Ethical issues Sampling Analysis of data Structure of the report Problems and limitations Appendix Work schedule Summary Step VI. Collecting data Considering ethical issues in data collection Stakeholders in research Ethical issues concerning research participants Collecting information Seeking consent Providing incentives Seeking sensitive information The possibility of causing harm to participants Maintaining confidentiality Ethical issues relating to the researcher Avoiding bias Provision or deprivation of a treatment I Using inappropriate research methodology Irlcorrect reporting Inappropriate use of information Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation The misuse of information Summary Step VII. Processing data Processing data Editing data collected through structured inquiries (quantitative studies) Editing data collected through unstructured interviewing Coding data: introduction Coding quantitative/categorical (qualitative and quantitative) data Developing a code book Pre-testing a code book Coding the data Verifying the coded data Coding descriptivelquantitative data Developing a frame of analysis for quantitative studies Frequency distributions Cross-tabulations Constructing the main concepts Statistical procedures Developing a frame of analysis for qualitative studies Analysing data The role of computers in research The role of statistics in research Summary Displaying data Tables Structure Types of tables Types of percentages Graphs The histogram The bar chart The stacked bar chart The 100 per cent bar chart The frequency polygon The cumulative frequency polygon The stem-and-leaf display The pie chart The line diagram or trend curve The area chart The scattergram Summary Step VIII Writing a research report Writing a research report Research writing in general Referencing Writing a bibliography Developing an outline Writing about a variable Summary Research methodology and practice evaluation What is evaluation? Why evaluation? Intervention-development-evaluation process Perspectives in the classification of evaluation studies Types of evaluation from a focus perspective Evaluation for planning a programlintervention Process/monitoring evaluation Impacdoutcome evaluation Cost-benefidcost-effectiveness evaluation Types of evaluation from a philosophical perspective Goal-centeredlobjective-oriented evaluation Consumer-orientedlclient-centred evaluation Improvement-oriented evaluation Holistic/illuminative evaluation Understanding an evaluation: the process Involving stakeholders in evaluation Ethics in evaluation Summary Appendix. Developing a research projecta set of exercises for beginners References Index London: SAGE publications, 2005. - 332 pagesResearch methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners, second edition is designed specifically for students with no previous experience or knowledge of research and research methodology. **Contents** FiguresTablesPreface **Research: a way of thinking** Research: a way of examining your practiceApplications of researchDefinitions of researchCharacteristics of researchTypes of researchApplicationObjectivesInquiry modeParadigms of researchSummary **The research process: a quick glance** The research process: an eight-step model Steps in planning a research studyStep I: formulating a research problemStep II: conceptualising a research designStep III: constructing an instrument for data collection Step IV: selectiilg a sampleStep V: writing a research proposalSteps in conducting a studyStep VI: collecting data. Step VII: processing dataStep VIII: writing a research reportSummary **Step I Formulating a research problem**__Reviewing the literature__Place of literature review in researchBring clarity and focus to your research problcmImprove your methodologyHroaden your lrnowledge base in your research areaContextualise your findingsProcedure for reviewing the literatureSearch for existing literaturcReview the literature selectedDevelop a theoretical i'rurnc.workUevelop a conceptual frameworkWriting up the literature reviewedSummary__Formulating a research problem__The research problemThe importance of formulating a research problemSources of research problemsConsiderations in selecting a research problemSteps in the formulation of a research problemThe formulation of objectivesEstablishing operational definitionsSummary__Identifying variables__The definition of a variableThe difference between a concept and a variableConcepts, indicators and variablesTypes of variableFrom the viewpoint of causationFrom the viewpoint of the study designFrom the viewpoint of the unit of measurementTypes of measurement scaleThe nominal or classificatory scaleThe ordinal or ranking scaleThe interval scaleThe ratio scaleSummary__Constructing hypotheses__The definition of a hypothesisThe functions of a hypothesisThe characteristics of a hypothesisTypes of hypothesisErrors in testing a hypothesisSummary **Step II. Conceptualising a research design**__The research design__The definition of a research designThe functions of a research designSummary__Selecting a study design__ Study designs based on the number of contacts The cross-sectional study design The before-and-after study designThe longitudinal study design Study designs based on the reference period The retrospective study design The prospective study design The retrospective-prospective study design Study designs based on the nature of the investigation The experimental study designs Others-some commonly used study designs Action research Feminist research The cross-over comparative experimental design The replicated cross-sectional design Trend studies Cohort studiesPanel studies Blind studies Double-blind studies Case studies Summary **Step III. Constructing an instrument for data collection**__Selecting a method of data collection__Methods of data collectionCollecting data using primary sourcesObserva'tionTypes of observationProblems with using observation as a method of data collectionSituations in which observation can be made. The recording of observationThe interviewUnstructured interviewsStructured interviewThe questionnaireChoosing between an interview schedule and a questionnaire Userent ways of administering a questionnaireThc contents of diccoveling letterAdvantages of a questionnaireDisadvantages of a questionnaireAdvantages of the interviewDisadvantages of thc interviewForms of questionAdvantages and disadvantages of open-ended questionsAdvantages and disadvantages of closed-ended questionsConsiderations in formulating questionsThe construction of a research instrumentAsking personal and sensitive questionsThe order of questionsPrerequisites for data collectionCollecting data using secondary sourcesProblems with using data from secondary sourcesSummary__Collecting data using attitudinal scales__Functions of attitudinal scalesDifficulties in developing an attitudinal scaleTypes of attitudinal scaleThe summated rating or Likert scaleThe equal-appearing interval or Thurstone scaleThe cumulative or Guttman scaleThe relationship between attitudinal and measurement scalesSummary__Establishing the validity and reliability of a research instrument__The concept of validityTypes of validityFace and content validityConcurrent and predictive validityConstruct validityThe concept of reliabilityFactors affecting the reliability of a research instrumentMethods of determining the reliability of an instrumentExternal consistency proceduresInternal consistency proceduresSummary **Step IV. Selecting a sample** Samplingl'he concept of samplingThe concept of sampling in qualitative researchSampling terminologyl'rinciples of samplingFactors affecting the inferences drawn from a sampleAims iq selecting a sampleTypcs of samplingRandodprobability sampling designsNon-randodnon-probability sampling designs'Mixed' sampling designsThe calculation of sample sizeI Summary **Step V. Writing a research proposal** Writing a research proposalThe research proposalContents of a research proposalPreamble/introductionThe problemObjectives of the studyHypotheses to be testedStudy designThe settingMeasurement proceduresEthical issuesSamplingAnalysis of dataStructure of the reportProblems and limitationsAppendixWork scheduleSummary **Step VI. Collecting data**__Considering ethical issues in data collection__Stakeholders in researchEthical issues concerning research participantsCollecting informationSeeking consentProviding incentivesSeeking sensitive informationThe possibility of causing harm to participantsMaintaining confidentialityEthical issues relating to the researcher Avoiding bias Provision or deprivation of a treatment I Using inappropriate research methodology Irlcorrect reporting Inappropriate use of information Ethical issues regarding the sponsoring organisation Restrictions imposed by the sponsoring organisation The misuse of information Summary **Step VII. Processing data**__Processing data__Editing data collected through structured inquiries(quantitative studies)Editing data collected through unstructured interviewingCoding data: introductionCoding quantitative/categorical (qualitative andquantitative) dataDeveloping a code bookPre-testing a code bookCoding the dataVerifying the coded dataCoding descriptivelquantitative dataDeveloping a frame of analysis for quantitative studiesFrequency distributionsCross-tabulationsConstructing the main conceptsStatistical proceduresDeveloping a frame of analysis for qualitative studiesAnalysing dataThe role of computers in researchThe role of statistics in researchSummary__Displaying data__TablesStructureTypes of tablesTypes of percentagesGraphsThe histogramThe bar chartThe stacked bar chartThe 100 per cent bar chartThe frequency polygonThe cumulative frequency polygonThe stem-and-leaf displayThe pie chartThe line diagram or trend curveThe area chartThe scattergramSummaryStep VIII Writing a research report__Writing a research report__Research writing in generalReferencingWriting a bibliographyDeveloping an outlineWriting about a variableSummary__Research methodology and practice evaluation__What is evaluation?Why evaluation?Intervention-development-evaluation processPerspectives in the classification of evaluation studiesTypes of evaluation from a focus perspectiveEvaluation for planning a programlinterventionProcess/monitoring evaluationImpacdoutcome evaluationCost-benefidcost-effectiveness evaluationTypes of evaluation from a philosophical perspectiveGoal-centeredlobjective-oriented evaluationConsumer-orientedlclient-centred evaluationImprovement-oriented evaluationHolistic/illuminative evaluationUnderstanding an evaluation: the processInvolving stakeholders in evaluationEthics in evaluationSummary**Appendix.** Developing a research projecta set of exercises for beginnersReferencesIndex