Rapid Prototyping and Engineering Applications : A Toolbox for Prototype Development, Second Edition

Since the publication of the first edition, several Additive Manufacturing technologies have been invented, and many new terminologies have been formalized. Each chapter has been brought up-to-date so that this book continues with its coverage of engineering procedures and the application of modern prototyping technologies, such as Additive Manufacturing (AM) and Virtual Prototyping (VP) that quickly develops new products with lower costs and higher quality. The examples, practice exercises, and case studies have also been updated.Features• Gears toward rapid product prototyping technologies• Presents a wide spectrum of prototyping tools and state-of-the-art additive manufacturing technologies• Explains how to use these rapid product prototyping tools in the development of products• Includes examples and case studies from the industry• Provides exercises in each chapter along with solutions Cover 1 Half Title 2 Title Page 4 Copyright Page 5 Contents 6 Preface 14 Acknowledgments 16 Author 18 Chapter 1 Introduction 20 1.1 Development of a successful product 20 1.1.1 World-class manufacturing 20 1.1.2 Product definition 23 1.1.3 Engineering design process 24 1.1.3.1 Identifying customer’s needs 24 1.1.3.2 Converting needs into product design specifications 25 1.1.3.3 Engineering design 25 1.1.3.4 Product prototyping 26 1.2 Product prototyping and its impact 26 1.2.1 Prototype design and innovation 27 1.2.2 Impact on cost, quality, and time 29 1.2.3 Key process requirements for rapid prototyping 30 1.3 Product prototyping and product development 33 1.3.1 What is prototyping? 33 1.3.2 Rapid prototyping in product development 36 References 37 Chapter 2 Product prototyping 38 2.1 Product prototyping 38 2.1.1 When is prototyping needed? 38 2.1.2 Common mistakes and issues in product prototyping 39 2.1.3 How to conduct prototyping? 41 2.1.4 Physical prototype design procedure 43 2.1.4.1 Task 1: Prototype conceptual design 43 2.1.4.2 Task 2: Configuration design of prototype parts and components 44 2.1.4.3 Task 3: Parametric design 44 2.1.4.4 Task 4: Detailed design 44 2.2 Prototype planning and management 45 2.2.1 Project vision in project management 45 2.2.2 How to manage prototype projects? 46 2.2.3 Project risk management 50 2.3 Product and prototype cost estimation 53 2.3.1 Fundamental cost concepts 54 2.3.2 Prototype cost estimation methods 56 2.3.3 The cost complexities 64 2.4 Prototype design methods 69 2.4.1 Engineering problem-solving 69 2.4.2 Prototype design principles 71 2.4.3 House of quality 71 2.4.4 Product design specifications 73 2.5 Prototype design tools 80 2.5.1 Evaluating alternatives 80 2.5.1.1 First approach 81 2.5.1.2 Second approach 81 2.5.1.3 Third approach 82 2.5.2 Useful idea generation methods 86 2.5.2.1 Morphological analysis 87 2.5.2.2 Functional efficiency technique 87 2.6 Paper prototyping 90 2.6.1 Selecting a prototype 90 2.6.1.1 Prototype fidelity 90 2.6.2 Paper prototyping 91 2.6.3 User tests 95 2.7 Learning from nature 97 2.7.1 What can we learn from nature? 97 2.7.2 Synectics 99 2.7.2.1 Analogy 99 2.7.3 Better products—back to nature 101 References 102 Chapter 3 Modeling and virtual prototyping 104 3.1 Mathematical modeling 104 3.1.1 Relationship between mathematics and physics: an example 105 3.1.2 Using models for product and prototype design and evaluation 109 3.1.2.1 Conservation of mass 109 3.1.2.2 Conservation of momentum 110 3.1.2.3 Conservation of angular momentum 111 3.1.2.4 Conservation of energy 111 3.1.2.5 Linear models 116 3.2 Modeling of physical systems 123 3.2.1 Types of modeling 123 3.2.2 Examples of physical modeling 124 3.3 Product modeling 135 3.3.1 Product model 135 3.3.2 Formal model 138 3.4 Using commercial software for virtual prototyping 144 3.4.1 Dynamic analysis for prototype motion evaluation 146 3.4.2 FEA for prototype structure evaluation 148 3.5 Virtual reality and virtual prototyping 153 3.5.1 Virtual prototyping 153 3.5.2 An AR system: an example 155 References 157 Chapter 4 Material selections and product prototyping 158 4.1 Prototyping materials 158 4.1.1 Prototyping and material properties 158 4.1.1.1 Material selection for high-fidelity prototypes 160 4.1.2 Material selection methods 161 4.1.3 Material selection processes for high-fidelity prototypes 162 4.2 Modeling of material properties 167 4.2.1 Aesthetic modeling 168 4.2.2 Warmth modeling 168 4.2.3 Abrasion-resistant modeling 168 4.2.4 Pitch modeling 169 4.2.5 Sound absorption modeling 169 4.2.6 Resilience modeling 170 4.2.7 Friction modeling 171 4.2.8 Thermal deformation 172 4.2.9 Ductility 173 4.3 Modeling and design of materials and structures 174 4.3.1 Cost of unit strength 176 4.3.2 Cost of unit stiffness 178 References 183 Chapter 5 Direct digital prototyping and manufacturing 184 5.1 Solid models and prototype representation 185 5.1.1 Solid modeling 186 5.1.2 CAD data representation 189 5.1.2.1 Error analysis 194 5.2 Reverse engineering for digital representation 197 5.2.1 Reverse engineering and product prototyping 197 5.2.2 Reverse engineering process 198 5.2.3 Ethics and reverse engineering 203 5.3 Prototyping and manufacturing using CNC machining 203 5.3.1 Machine codes for process control 204 5.3.2 Using CAD/CAM for digital manufacturing 207 5.3.3 Developing a successful postprocessor 216 5.3.3.1 Opening and closing codes 218 5.3.3.2 Program detail formats 219 5.3.3.3 Formats of specific G- and M-codes 220 5.3.3.4 Transformation matrix 220 5.3.3.5 Formation of the transformation matrix for the A- and B-axis rotation 221 5.3.3.6 Limitation of machine mobility around A- and B-axes 222 5.3.3.7 B tilt table 223 5.3.3.8 A tilt table 223 5.3.3.9 Axis limits 223 5.4 Fully automated digital prototyping and manufacturing 227 5.4.1 Process planning and digital fabrication 227 5.4.2 Feature-based design and fabrication 228 5.4.3 User-assisted feature-based design 230 References 232 Chapter 6 Additive manufacturing processes 234 6.1 Additive manufacturing overview 234 6.1.1 What is AM 235 6.1.1.1 AM applications 235 6.1.2 What are the alternatives to AM processes? 236 6.1.3 Producing functional parts 239 6.2 Additive manufacturing procedure 240 6.2.1 Why is AM process faster? 241 6.2.2 A typical AM process 241 6.2.3 Why STL files? 242 6.2.4 Converting STL file from various CAD files 244 6.2.5 Controlling part accuracy in STL format 245 6.2.6 Slicing the STL file 250 6.2.7 Building an AM part using an STL file 255 6.2.8 AM file format 256 6.3 Liquid-based AM processes 259 6.3.1 Stereolithography process 259 6.3.2 Mask-based process 263 6.3.3 Inject-based process 265 6.4 Solid-based AM processes 268 6.4.1 Extrusion-based process 269 6.4.2 Contour-cutting process 273 6.4.2.1 The process 274 6.4.3 UC process (Ultrasonic ConsolidationTM) 275 6.5 Powder-based AM processes 278 6.5.1 PBF processes 279 6.5.1.1 PBF process steps 281 6.5.2 3D inject printing process 286 6.5.3 Direct laser deposition 289 6.5.3.1 Advantages of DLD process 295 6.5.3.2 Limitations of DLD process 296 6.5.4 EBM process 296 6.5.5 Hybrid material deposition and removal process 298 6.6 Summary and future AM processes 303 References 304 Chapter 7 Building a prototype using off-the-shelf components 306 7.1 How to decide what to purchase? 306 7.1.1 Purchasing decision for a prototype 307 7.1.2 What to purchase? 308 7.1.3 Draw a flow diagram of signals and components 312 7.1.4 Prioritize the precision of the system 314 7.2 How to find the catalogs that gave the needed components? 317 7.2.1 Evaluating companies and products 318 7.2.2 Component selection 318 7.3 How to ensure that the purchased components will work together? 322 7.4 Tolerance analysis 332 7.5 Tolerance stack analysis 339 7.6 Assembly stacks 346 7.7 Process capability 350 7.8 Statistical tolerance analysis 355 7.9 Case study: conceptual design of a chamber cover 359 7.9.1 Problem description 359 7.9.2 Requirement definition 360 7.9.3 Component identification and design 360 7.9.4 Tolerance analysis 362 7.9.5 A focused prototype 364 References 364 Chapter 8 Prototyping of automated systems 366 8.1 Actuators 366 8.1.1 Types of actuators 367 8.1.2 Drives 369 8.1.3 When to choose an actuator 372 8.1.3.1 Base/manifold-mount solenoid control valves 372 8.2 Sensors 375 8.2.1 Sensor classification based on sensor technology 377 8.2.1.1 Manual switches 378 8.2.1.2 Proximity switch 378 8.2.1.3 Photosensor 378 8.2.1.4 Fiber optics sensor 380 8.2.1.5 Infrared sensor 381 8.2.2 Sensor selection 381 8.3 Controllers and analyzers 383 8.3.1 PLC control 384 8.3.2 Computer control 386 8.4 Mechanisms 404 8.4.1 Mechanisms in automation 404 8.4.2 Applications and selection of mechanisms 410 8.4.2.1 Linear or reciprocating input, linear output 410 8.4.2.2 Rotary input, rotary output 413 8.4.2.3 Rotary input, reciprocating output 414 8.4.2.4 Rotary input, intermittent output 416 8.4.2.5 Rotary input, irregular output 417 8.4.2.6 Reciprocating input, rotary output 417 8.4.2.7 Reciprocating input, oscillation output 418 8.4.2.8 Reciprocating input, intermittent output 420 8.4.2.9 Reciprocating input, irregular output 420 8.4.2.10 Oscillation input, rotary output 420 8.4.2.11 O scillation input, reciprocating output 421 8.4.2.12 Oscillation input, intermittent output 421 8.4.2.13 Oscillation input, irregular output 422 8.4.2.14 Rotary input, linear output 422 8.4.2.15 Other complex motions 422 8.4.2.16 Universal joint mechanisms 423 8.4.2.17 Wedges and stopping 423 References 426 Chapter 9 Using prototypes for product assessment 428 9.1 Introduction to DOE 429 9.1.1 Design of experiments 430 9.1.2 Standard deviation 430 9.1.3 Loss function 432 9.2 Orthogonal arrays 437 9.2.1 What is OA? 438 9.2.2 Taguchi’s DOE procedure 440 9.3 Analysis of variance 445 9.3.1 One-way ANOVA 446 9.3.2 Two-way ANOVA 449 9.3.3 Three-way ANOVA 452 9.3.4 Interaction effects 452 9.3.5 Two-way ANOVA and OAs 454 9.3.6 S/N ratios 458 9.4 ANOVA using Excel 461 9.4.1 Single-factor (one-way) ANOVA 461 9.4.2 Two-factor (two-way) ANOVA without replication 463 9.4.3 Two-factor (two-way) ANOVA with replication 465 9.4.4 F-distribution 467 9.5 Quality characteristic 469 9.5.1 Overall evaluation criterion 469 9.5.2 Predictive model 470 9.6 An example: optimization of a prototype laser deposition process 472 9.6.1 Problem statement 472 9.6.2 Selection of factors and levels 472 9.6.3 Orthogonal array 473 9.6.4 Sample preparation 474 9.6.5 Responses 474 9.6.6 Formulation of the OEC 475 9.6.7 Experiment 477 9.6.8 Analysis of the means 477 9.6.9 Analysis of the variance 478 References 480 Chapter 10 Prototype optimization 482 10.1 Formulation of engineering problems for optimization 484 10.1.1 Definitions 484 10.1.2 Problem formulation 485 10.2 Optimization using differential calculus 491 10.3 Lagrange’s multiplier method 496 10.4 Optimization using Microsoft Excel 502 10.5 Case study: application of optimization in fixture design 514 10.5.1 Development of a fixture generation methodology 514 10.5.2 Modeling deterministic positioning using linear programming 520 10.5.3 Modeling accessibility of a fixture determined with linear programming 521 10.5.4 Modeling clamping stability of the work part in the fixture 521 10.5.5 Modeling positive clamping sequence using linear programming 521 10.5.6 Modeling positive fixture reaction to all machining forces 522 10.5.6.1 Numerical example 522 References 525 Appendix A-1 526 Appendix A-2 528 Appendix A-3 530 Short Answers to Selected Review Problems 532 Index 538 Since the publication of the first edition, several Additive Manufacturing technologies have been invented, and many new terminologies have been formalized. Each chapter will be brought up-to-date so that this book can continue with its coverage of engineering procedures and the application of modern prototyping technologies.