Encyclopedia of Basic Epilepsy Research

Endophenotyping......Page 1 Editor Biography......Page 2 Introduction......Page 3 Permission Acknowledgments......Page 5 Autonomic Consequences of Seizures, Including Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy......Page 6 Methods......Page 7 A Cortical Focus in Generalized Absence Epilepsy......Page 8 Circuitries......Page 10 Interaction between Various Types of Epilepsy......Page 11 Future Challenges......Page 12 Further Reading......Page 13 Background......Page 14 Methods......Page 15 Difference in GABAA IPSC Properties of GAERS and NEC Rat Neurons are Nucleus-Specific......Page 16 Effects of GHB on Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Potentials Recorded in VB TC Neurons......Page 17 Acknowledgements......Page 19 Further Reading......Page 20 Introduction......Page 21 Methods......Page 22 Intracellular Activity of Cortical Neurons......Page 25 Future Goals......Page 26 Further Reading......Page 27 The Thalamocortical Network - General View......Page 28 TC neurons......Page 29 Interneurons......Page 30 Synchronized Thalamocortical Oscillations......Page 31 Pathophysiological Mechanisms of CAE......Page 32 Future Challenges......Page 33 Further Reading......Page 34 Introduction......Page 35 Background......Page 36 Contribution of Cortical and Thalamic Networks to SW Discharges......Page 37 Thalamic Networks and SW Discharge Rhythmogenesis......Page 38 Role of Cortical Networks in SW Discharge Initiation......Page 39 Mechanisms of Cortical Hyperexcitability in Absence Seizures......Page 40 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research......Page 42 Further Reading......Page 43 Background......Page 44 KA-Induced Seizures......Page 45 Future Goals......Page 46 Further Reading......Page 47 Introduction......Page 48 Introduction......Page 1457 Background......Page 49 In Vitro Electrophysiology: Susceptibility to Kainate-Induced Epileptiform Activity......Page 50 In Vitro Electrophysiology: Dentate Gating......Page 51 In Vitro Electrophysiology: Intrinsic and Synaptic Properties of Dentate Granule Cells......Page 52 Further Reading......Page 53 Introduction......Page 54 Adult Neurogenesis and Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy......Page 818 Photothrombosis......Page 55 Arterial Occlusion Models......Page 56 Future Goals......Page 57 Further Reading......Page 58 Introduction......Page 59 Networks in Epilepsy......Page 60 Audiogenic Seizures......Page 61 Establishing Inferior Colliculus as the Consensus AGS Initiation Site......Page 62 Anticonvulsant Drug Action on the AGS Network......Page 63 Future Directions......Page 66 Further Reading......Page 67 Small World Characteristics are Initially Enhanced, then Transformed during Sclerosis......Page 68 Synaptic Inhibition......Page 69 Methods - AED Screening......Page 70 Calcium channels......Page 71 Synaptic Inhibition......Page 72 Potassium channels......Page 73 Future Directions and Challenges......Page 74 Further Reading......Page 75 Cognitive Effects of Seizures in Animal Models......Page 76 Electrophysiology......Page 77 GABA Transporters in Epilepsy......Page 78 Gabapentin and pregabalin......Page 80 Future Directions......Page 82 Further Reading......Page 83 Conclusion and Future Goals......Page 85 Carrier Vehicles......Page 86 Epidural Drug......Page 87 Local Perfusion by Catheter......Page 88 Acknowledgements......Page 89 Further Reading......Page 90 Pharmacology of Seizure Drugs......Page 91 ATP-Binding Cassette ABC Proteins......Page 93 RLIP76: A New Model of Multiple Drug Resistance?......Page 94 Radiolabeled Chemical Injection and Quantification......Page 96 BBB Leakage and Epilepsy: MRI Findings......Page 97 Protein Binding and pH......Page 98 Brain Edema and Drug Delivery in Epileptic Brain......Page 100 Further Reading......Page 101 Background......Page 103 Further Reading......Page 200 Enhancement of EAA Excitation......Page 860 Methods......Page 104 New Pharmacological Targets and Approaches......Page 105 Alteration of Drug Efficacy in Epileptic Animals......Page 106 Characterization of Concentration-Effect Relationships of AEDs: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Modeling......Page 107 Synergistic and Antagonistic Interactions of AED Combinations......Page 108 Further Reading......Page 109 Background - Drug Discovery......Page 111 Other efficacy models......Page 112 The ADD Program......Page 113 Additional Investigations......Page 114 Future Studies......Page 115 Summary......Page 116 Further Reading......Page 117 Background......Page 118 Whole-Cell Current-Clamp Recordings......Page 119 Reelin's Role in the Development of GCD......Page 213 Human Characteristics of West Syndrome/Infantile Spasms......Page 1146 Regulation of Gene Expression......Page 1458 SREDs in Hippocampal Neuronal Cultures......Page 120 Increasing Durations of SE and It's Effect on Neuronal Cell Death......Page 121 Accumulation of Glutamate or Other Metabolites into the Media do not Cause Neuronal Cell Death......Page 122 SREDs do not Cause Cell Death......Page 123 Role of Ca2+ in SE-Induced Neuronal Death......Page 124 Discussion and Future Directions......Page 125 Further Reading......Page 127 Introduction......Page 128 Transporters......Page 129 Receptors......Page 130 17beta-Estradiol......Page 541 Background......Page 131 Recent Results......Page 1427 The Postsynaptic Region......Page 132 Further Reading......Page 133 See also......Page 134 Changes in subunit composition......Page 135 Background......Page 1112 Hormones and Seizures in Animal Models of Epilepsy......Page 547 Methods and Results - Recent Advances in Structural Neuroimaging Techniques......Page 0 Refractory Status Epilepticus......Page 136 Model description......Page 1149 Findings from Bcl-w knockouts......Page 137 Other findings in experimental models......Page 138 Recent Results......Page 139 Hormones and Epilepsy......Page 140 Background-GABAA Receptor-Mediated Functions......Page 141 Sites Generating Physiological and Pathological HFOs......Page 142 Further Reading......Page 143 Introduction and Background......Page 144 Recent Results......Page 145 Combined Hippocampal-Entorhinal Cortex Slice Preparation......Page 627 Seizure-Induced Neuronal Death in the Developing Brain - Influence of Models......Page 146 Epileptic Seizure Types as Unique Diagnostic Entities......Page 1646 Methods......Page 148 Introduction and General Overview......Page 149 Epilepsy Syndromes......Page 150 Hyperpolarizing and Depolarizing GABAA Receptor-Mediated Responses......Page 347 Methods......Page 151 Pilocarpine and Lithium-Pilocarpine Models......Page 152 Kainic Acid Model......Page 153 Loss of Glutamine Synthetase and GLT-1 in Reactive Astrocytes of the Epileptic Brain: Implications for Regulation.........Page 970 Periventricular Nodular Heterotopia......Page 154 Further Reading......Page 155 Recent Findings......Page 156 Further Reading......Page 1456 Role of Interictal Discharges......Page 157 Basic Machinery of NT Release......Page 984 Occipital lobe epilepsy......Page 158 EAA system......Page 159 See also......Page 160 Further Reading......Page 161 Recent Results......Page 162 Methods......Page 163 Receptor Subtypes Involved......Page 991 Associated Variables......Page 164 Unmet Mental Health Needs......Page 165 Vagus Nerve......Page 994 Further Reading......Page 166 Methods......Page 167 Laforin and Malin Gene Function in Lafora Disease Explain a Mystery of Brain Biochemistry: Why is Glycogen Absent in Neurons?......Page 385 Treatment - Curing Lafora Disease......Page 168 What are the Most Common Designs?......Page 169 Further Reading......Page 170 Introduction......Page 172 Background......Page 173 Methodology......Page 174 Future Goals......Page 175 Further Reading......Page 176 Increases in Endogenous BDNF Reduce Vulnerability to Ischemia through Secondary Effects on NPY Gene Expression......Page 177 Mechanisms Underlying Cytokine Modulation of Neuronal Excitability (Fig. 1)......Page 649 Place cell recordings......Page 178 Long-term potentiation......Page 179 Further Reading......Page 181 Tissue from old rats......Page 629 Types of Animal Models......Page 183 Clinical Studies......Page 1566 Results......Page 184 Further Reading......Page 188 Introduction......Page 190 Background......Page 191 Results - The Unique Relationship between Autism and Epilepsy in TSC......Page 192 Further Reading......Page 194 Background......Page 196 Further Reading......Page 862 Procedures......Page 197 Bicuculline and Picrotoxin......Page 851 Huperzine A......Page 1603 Results......Page 199 Future Goals......Page 201 How is CNS Gene Delivery Accomplished? Preparation of Pegylated Immunoliposomes......Page 202 Autism in TSC......Page 203 The Role of BDNF in Epileptogenesis......Page 1035 Further Reading......Page 204 Background......Page 206 Methods......Page 207 Future Goals......Page 208 See also......Page 210 Dynorphin A......Page 1198 Introduction......Page 211 Background - Granule Cell Dispersion in Epilepsy - a Migration Defect?......Page 297 Unilateral Injection of Kainate, an Agonist of the Excitatory Transmitter Glutamate, Results in the Development of GCD in.........Page 212 Methods......Page 527 GABAA Receptor Alteration in Epilepsy......Page 300 See also......Page 216 Introduction......Page 217 Background......Page 218 Intersecting and Parallel Cell Cascades Modulate Cell Size......Page 219 Experimental Methodologies......Page 221 Recent Developments......Page 222 Experimental Setup......Page 1097 Single-Cell Microdissection for mRNA Expression Analysis in Focal Malformations......Page 223 Challenges for the Future......Page 224 Further Reading......Page 784 Further Reading......Page 1152 Effects of EB on Paired Pulse-induced Population Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials in the Dentate Gyrus Granule Cells......Page 225 GABAA Receptor-Mediated Mechanisms and Epileptiform Synchronization......Page 314 Recent Results......Page 226 Directions for Future Research......Page 228 Further Reading......Page 229 Background......Page 230 Defense Proteins......Page 776 SPECT for Clinical Seizure Localization......Page 231 Recent Results......Page 232 Recent Results......Page 233 Future Goals......Page 234 Introduction......Page 235 Further Reading......Page 313 Developmental Aspects of Seizures......Page 806 Mutations in GABAA Receptor alpha1 Subunits......Page 236 Methods......Page 237 Extrasynaptic GABAA Receptors and Tonic Inhibition......Page 1526 See also......Page 239 Further Reading......Page 240 Background......Page 241 Voltage-Sensitive Dye Imaging......Page 589 Results......Page 242 Sex Differences in the Age-Specific Effects of GABAAergic Drugs, in Seizure-Naiumlve Rats......Page 243 Neurogenesis and the Role of Growth Factors......Page 245 Future Directions......Page 246 Dynorphin and Nociceptin/Orphanin FQ......Page 247 38......Page 248 Gene Expression in Immature and Mature Hippocampus After Status Epilepticus......Page 1103 Background......Page 899 Background......Page 298 Docosahexaenoic Acid in Synaptic and Other Neural Membranes......Page 600 Validation of Expression Data......Page 249 Recent Data......Page 250 Kindling in 30-Day Old GAERS......Page 908 Immediate-Early Genes......Page 251 Inflammation-Related Genes......Page 252 Technical Considerations......Page 254 Further Reading......Page 255 Glucose Metabolism and GABAA Receptor Dysfunction in Human Partial Epilepsy......Page 257 Role of Inflammation in Epileptogenesis and Seizure-Induced Neurodegeneration......Page 258 Classification of Seizures and Syndromes......Page 303 Results......Page 259 Work in Progress and Future Goals......Page 260 Further Reading......Page 261 Background......Page 262 Seizure Initiation and Termination......Page 605 Age-Specific Epileptogenesis......Page 263 Introduction......Page 1113 Evidence for an Endogenous Control System by the Basal Ganglia Circuits......Page 265 Future Directions-Hypothesis and Potential Targets......Page 270 Further Reading......Page 271 Models of Epileptogenesis and Transporter Proteins......Page 273 Recurrent Synaptic Actions and the Genesis of Epileptiform activity......Page 1157 Immunoblotting and Quantitative Densitometry......Page 274 Diffusion Weighted Imaging......Page 275 Further Reading......Page 276 Introduction......Page 277 Multiplicity of GABAergic Systems and Functions......Page 278 Neurotrophic Factors......Page 279 Seizure Susceptibility of CAII-Deficient Mice......Page 280 Biophysical Properties of GABA Transporters and Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 1524 Recent Results......Page 281 Further Reading......Page 282 Background......Page 284 Animals and Tissue Sample Preparation......Page 285 Abnormal cortical-subcortical interactions......Page 286 Twin Studies......Page 287 Isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification......Page 288 Ethanol Withdrawal-Induced Convulsions......Page 289 Introduction......Page 291 Ionic Mechanism of GABAA Receptor-Mediated Inhibition......Page 292 Alterations in GABAA Receptor-Mediated Inhibition......Page 293 Cross-Over Studies......Page 1628 GABAB Receptor-Mediated Inhibition in Human Epileptogenic Cortex......Page 294 Future Goals......Page 295 Further Reading......Page 296 Methods......Page 299 Adrenocorticotrophin......Page 301 Further Reading......Page 302 The immature hippocampal network generates a primitive universal pattern......Page 304 Electrophysiological recordings of the BG circuits......Page 928 Generalization of theses features to other brain structures......Page 305 Implications for the epilepsies......Page 306 Maternal Oxytocin Reduces [Cl-]I before Delivery and Shifts Transiently GABA to Inhibition (Figure 3)......Page 307 Region-specific Effects of beta-Estradiol and Progesterone on Low Mg2plusmn-induced Epileptiform Activity......Page 308 Relevant Website......Page 309 Background......Page 310 Methods......Page 311 Future Goals......Page 312 Changes in Extracellular Glucose Levels Increase SNR GABAergic Neuron Firing......Page 789 GABAA Receptors and Epileptiform Synchronization in the Limbic System......Page 315 GABAA Receptors and Epileptiform Synchronization in Human Focal Cortical Dysplasia......Page 319 See also......Page 320 Introduction......Page 322 The Role of the Basal Ganglia Circuits in the Control of Epileptic Seizures......Page 924 CREB/ICER......Page 323 Proenkephalin and prodynorphin mRNA......Page 324 Further Reading......Page 325 Summary and Future Directions......Page 1530 Background: Mutations in GABAA Receptor Subunit Genes......Page 327 Postsurgical evaluation......Page 1697 Seizure Behaviors and Electroencephalographic (EEG) Monitoring......Page 329 Histological and Immunocytochemical (ICC) Methods......Page 330 Potential reorganization of GABAergic axons......Page 331 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research......Page 332 Animal Models of Drug-Resistant Epilepsy......Page 333 Introduction......Page 334 SE: The GABA Hypothesis......Page 335 Mechanism of GABAA Receptor-Mediated Inhibition......Page 336 See also......Page 337 Cell Counts......Page 338 Detection of DNA Fragmentation by in situ Nick Translation Histochemistry......Page 339 Background......Page 340 Recent Results......Page 342 Future Goals......Page 343 Further Reading......Page 344 Introduction......Page 346 Diversity of GABAergic Interneurons......Page 348 GABAergic Circuits Involved in Thalamocortical Spike-Wave Seizures......Page 349 Further Reading......Page 350 Introduction......Page 352 Introduction......Page 652 Methods......Page 956 Recent Results......Page 354 Relevant Website......Page 355 Background - Epileptic Syndromes Associated with Mutated Cytoskeleton Genes......Page 356 Methods - The Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in Epilepsy: A Real Way of the Cross......Page 358 What can we learn from the gene structure and the encoded protein?......Page 359 Identification of proteins by mass spectrometry......Page 1020 Distribution of the protein in various tissues......Page 360 Findings......Page 1349 Classification and Differential CNS Expression of GABA Transporters......Page 361 Future Goals......Page 362 Introduction - Non-ion Channel Genes in Human Epilepsy......Page 363 Background......Page 1268 Methods......Page 668 Complex Seizure Phenotype in Brunol4 Mutant Mice......Page 364 See also......Page 369 Further Reading......Page 370 GABAR Mutations in Human Idiopathic Generalized Epilepsy (IGE) and Angelman Syndrome (AS)......Page 371 Fundamentals of Electrical Stimulation......Page 372 Bridging the Gap Between BBB Alteration and Neuronal Hyperexcitability......Page 373 Introduction......Page 375 Genetic Linkage......Page 376 Animal Models of Epilepsy and Seizures......Page 582 Seizure-Related Acute MRI Changes......Page 680 Summary and Directions for Future Research......Page 378 Further Reading......Page 379 Methods......Page 380 Lis1......Page 381 Other lissencephaly genes and epilepsy......Page 382 Evaluation of Seizure Etiology......Page 1690 Mechanisms of the Biphasic Structural Alterations......Page 824 Further Reading......Page 384 Myoclonin/EFHC1 Gene Function in JME Explains a Contradiction in an Idiopathic Epilepsy: Why do some JME Patients have Areas of Thicker Brain Cortex?......Page 387 Genotyping Adolescent Myoclonic Epilepsy Helps Treatment Choice......Page 388 Further Reading......Page 390 Human Epilepsy as a Complex Genetic Trait: Lessons from Animal Models and Prospects for the Future......Page 392 Axon Sprouting and Increased Recurrent Excitation......Page 1295 Genes for Genetically Complex Epilepsy in Human......Page 393 Methods......Page 394 Ampakine Treatment Increase BDNF and can Restore LTP in Models of Cognitive Impairment......Page 395 Rodents with Genetically Complex Absence, or Petit-mal Seizures......Page 396 Further Reading......Page 1008 Is Mendelian Epilepsy Really all that Genetically Simple? Studying Human in Mouse......Page 398 Further Reading......Page 399 Excitotoxic Cell Death: A Common Pathologic Mechanism in Neurodegenerative Diseases......Page 400 Experimental Genetic Approach: Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs)......Page 401 Recent Results......Page 402 Future Goals: Challenges for the Future......Page 403 Further Reading......Page 404 SCN1B......Page 405 Recent Results......Page 1012 SCN1A......Page 406 Neuronal specificity of SCN1A mutations......Page 407 Chloride Channels......Page 408 Further Reading......Page 409 C57BL/6J and DBA/2J Mice......Page 411 Monoamines......Page 412 Genetic Studies......Page 413 Pharmacological studies......Page 414 Genetic Studies: QTL Confirmation and Analysis......Page 416 Future Directions - Relevance to Human Epilepsy......Page 417 Further Reading......Page 418 ADNFLE: What is the Phenotype?......Page 419 In vivo SE Causes Increased [Ca2+]i, Altered Ca2+ Homeostasis, and a Prolonged-Elevated [Ca2+]i Plateau......Page 420 Are there Mutation-Specific Associated Features in ADNFLE?......Page 421 What Stories are Mouse and Other Models Telling?......Page 422 Relevant Websites......Page 423 Background - The Tripartite Synapse......Page 424 The Astrocytic Adenosine Cycle......Page 425 Reactive Astrocytosis Disrupts the Adenosine and Glutamine Cycles......Page 426 Directions for Future Research - Could treatments be Targeted through the Astrocyte?......Page 427 Further Reading......Page 428 Characteristics and Nomenclature of Glutamate and GABA Transporters......Page 429 Glutamate Transporters......Page 430 Future Directions......Page 432 Further Reading......Page 433 Introduction......Page 434 Introduction......Page 1025 Methods......Page 435 Recent Results......Page 437 See also......Page 439 Further Reading......Page 440 Posttraumatic Epilepsy Caused by Fluid Percussion Injury......Page 441 Methods......Page 442 Glutamate Transporters in Gliomas......Page 443 System xc Function in Gliomas......Page 444 Preclinical Studies Using Pharmacological Inhibition of System xc to Inhibit Glutamate Release......Page 446 Further Reading......Page 447 Unique Properties of Astrocytes......Page 449 Astrocyte-specific enzymes......Page 450 Contribution of Astrocyte with Altered Properties to Seizure-Inducing Mechanisms......Page 451 See also......Page 452 Further Reading......Page 453 Dysfunction of glutamate transport and synthesis......Page 454 Metabotropic glutamate receptors and astroglial Ca2+ signalling in epilepsy......Page 455 Water channels......Page 456 Tumor-associated epilepsy......Page 457 Perspectives and Future Directions......Page 458 Further Reading......Page 459 Background......Page 460 Recent Results......Page 461 Tumor Treatment-Induced Excitabiltiy Changes......Page 464 Further Reading......Page 465 Introduction......Page 467 Methods......Page 468 mGluR1/5 Contribution to Synaptic Plasticity......Page 469 mGluR1a/5 Involvement in Seizure Activity In Vitro......Page 470 See also......Page 471 Further Reading......Page 472 Background......Page 473 Methods......Page 475 Recent Results......Page 476 Future Directions......Page 478 See also......Page 479 Further Reading......Page 480 Background......Page 481 Recent Results......Page 482 Future Goals......Page 486 Further Reading......Page 487 Background......Page 488 Long-Lasting Effects of Group I mGluR Activation on Synaptic Efficacy and Network Excitability......Page 489 Epileptogenic Propensity Resulting from Selective Group I mGluR Activation......Page 490 Induction of In Vitro Epileptogenesis via Group I mGluR Activation: Key Features......Page 491 Downstream Second Messengers: Interplay of PKC Isoforms in Induction vs. Suppression of In Vitro Epileptogenesis......Page 492 Future Goals and Challenges......Page 493 Further Reading......Page 494 Physiological Role of Kainate Receptors in Glutamatergic Synaptic Transmission......Page 495 Degenerative Changes and Mossy Fiber Sprouting in the Kainate Models of TLE......Page 496 Role of Kainate Receptors Activation in Acute Seizure Generation......Page 499 Role of Kainate Receptors in Chronic Seizure Generation......Page 500 See also......Page 501 Further Reading......Page 502 Background - Functional Anatomy of the Dentate Gyrus......Page 503 Increased Neurogenesis of Dentate Granule Neurons......Page 504 Changes in the Functional Connectivity of Dentate Granule Neurons......Page 505 Changes in the Elementary Properties of Synapses and Receptors......Page 506 Collective Properties of the Dentate Gyrus in Seizure Discharge......Page 508 Further Reading......Page 509 Granule-Cell Connectivity and Plasticity......Page 510 Electrophysiological Recordings......Page 511 Kindling In Vitro......Page 512 Activation of the Mossy Fibers Provokes GABAA Receptor-Mediated Monosynaptic Responses in their Target Cells of CA3......Page 513 Functional Implications with Regard to Epilepsy......Page 515 Future Goals......Page 517 See also......Page 518 Further Reading......Page 519 Introduction......Page 520 Background......Page 521 Results......Page 522 Future Goals......Page 523 Further Reading......Page 524 Introduction......Page 525 Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria......Page 1626 Mechanisms of Ovarian Hormones for Modulation of Seizures......Page 528 Nonclassical Actions of Progestins for Antiseizure Effects......Page 529 Drug Interactions......Page 1627 Future Goals......Page 531 See also......Page 532 Further Reading......Page 591 The Emerging Role of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Epilepsy......Page 533 Methods......Page 534 Region-specific Effects of beta-Estradiol and Progesterone on Low Mg2plusmn-induced Epileptiform Activity (Table 1)......Page 535 Synchrony, Complexity, and Intermittency in Network Models......Page 536 Hormones and Their Action......Page 538 Genetic Associations with TLE......Page 1504 Progesterone and Related Neurosteroids......Page 540 Testosterone......Page 542 Future Challenges......Page 543 Further Reading......Page 544 Introduction......Page 546 Quantitative analysis of the mRNA content of selected genes of interest......Page 764 Progesterone - Cellular Level......Page 548 Estradiol and Progesterone - Circuit Level......Page 550 Implications for Treatment Strategies......Page 551 Further Reading......Page 552 Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone......Page 553 Further Reading......Page 1654 Adenosine......Page 1454 Properties of recurrent synapses between CA3 pyramidal cells......Page 895 General methods......Page 554 Estradiol/progesterone......Page 555 Epidemiology and clinical features......Page 1681 Methods......Page 556 Further Reading......Page 557 Background......Page 558 AR-Mediated Antiseizure Effects......Page 559 AR-Independent Antiseizure Effects......Page 560 Methods......Page 561 Summary and Future Goals......Page 562 Further Reading......Page 563 Introduction and Background......Page 565 Introduction......Page 1668 Results......Page 566 Further Reading......Page 570 Introduction......Page 572 Excitatory Amino Acid-Induced Convulsions......Page 573 Results......Page 574 Further Reading......Page 575 Development of Sex Differences in SNR-Mediated Seizure Control......Page 576 Development of Sex Differences in SNR-Mediated Seizure Control (Table 1)......Page 577 Background......Page 578 Imaging Characterization of Familial Temporal Lobe Epilepsies......Page 579 Introduction......Page 580 Progesterone, Neurosteroids and Catamenial Epilepsy......Page 583 Treatment Selection......Page 1693 Testosterone, Androgenic Neurosteroids and Seizure Susceptibility......Page 585 Directions for Future Research......Page 586 Further Reading......Page 587 Background......Page 588 Cellular Properties and Synaptic Connectivity of CA3 Pyramidal Cells: Mechanisms for Epileptic Synchronization.........Page 894 Introduction......Page 593 Background......Page 1496 Novel Designs......Page 594 Recent Results......Page 595 Future Goals......Page 596 Further Reading......Page 598 Properties of CA3 pyramidal cells......Page 599 Further Reading......Page 1144 Background and Methodological Issues......Page 1431 A’More Detailed Example: Imaging of Intrinsic Optical Signals (IIOS)......Page 601 Rationale......Page 602 Results......Page 603 Recent Results......Page 1460 See also......Page 604 Optical Monitoring of Circuitry Activity In vitro......Page 606 Icta-Interictal Relationships......Page 913 Further Reading......Page 1465 Loading Issues......Page 607 Imaging Issues......Page 608 An In Vitro Model of Surround Inhibition......Page 609 Patch-clamp Recordings......Page 610 Further Reading......Page 612 fMRI......Page 613 p35-/- Mouse......Page 1508 Puberty......Page 614 SPECT for Clinical Seizure Localization: Reading and Analysis......Page 615 Conclusions......Page 1216 Morphological changes......Page 815 Ionic currents underlying action potentials in cortical neurons......Page 616 Seizure Initiation Associated with Activation of Transient Epileptiform Events......Page 1233 See also......Page 618 Further Reading......Page 619 Introduction......Page 620 MRI of the Pilocarpine Model of Epilepsy......Page 621 Background - Problems in Studying How Seizures Stop......Page 1450 Recent Results......Page 622 T2-Weighted Imaging......Page 623 Results - Examples of the Preparation's Utility......Page 809 Tachykinins and Epilepsy......Page 625 Introduction......Page 811 Using Intrinsic Optical Signal Changes to Analyze Epileptic Activity and Seizures......Page 626 Genes, Channels, and Receptors......Page 1470 Impairment......Page 628 Further Reading......Page 630 Seizures, Epilepsy, and the Blood-Brain Barrier......Page 631 Background and Methodologies......Page 1240 Results......Page 1173 Brain Development, Vasculogenesis, and Epilepsy......Page 633 Osmotic Opening of BBB......Page 635 Recent Results......Page 636 Future Directions......Page 640 Further Reading......Page 641 Introduction......Page 642 Background......Page 643 Methods......Page 644 Future Goals......Page 645 Rapid Degeneration of the Neuronal K-Cl Cotransporter, KCC2, after Trauma......Page 646 See also......Page 647 Background......Page 1251 Inflammatory Molecules in Human Epileptogenic Tissue......Page 648 Further Reading......Page 651 Cytokines and Chemokines......Page 654 Recent Results......Page 655 Further Reading......Page 658 Microinjection Studies......Page 659 Mossy Fiber Sprouting......Page 1270 Neuroprotection Provided by Newer AEDs......Page 660 Future Goals......Page 661 Further Reading......Page 662 Introduction......Page 664 Perisomatic Inhibitory Cells......Page 665 Dendritic Inhibitory Cells......Page 666 Long-Range Interneurons......Page 667 Perisomatic Inhibition......Page 669 Dendritic Inhibition......Page 670 Directions for Future Research......Page 672 Introduction......Page 675 Further Reading......Page 674 Dentate Gyrus......Page 676 Methods......Page 677 Conclusions and Future Directions......Page 1593 Neuroimaging in Familial MTLE......Page 1701 Entorhinal Cortex......Page 678 Further Reading......Page 679 Susceptibility and Resistance of GABA Neurons to Seizure-Induced Damage......Page 681 Up-regulation of GAD mRNAs and proteins......Page 682 Alterations in remaining GABA neurons that could impair their function......Page 684 See also......Page 685 Further Reading......Page 686 Future Goals......Page 687 Experimental Studies......Page 1591 Recent Results......Page 690 Further Reading......Page 692 Future Challenges......Page 693 Na+ Channels......Page 694 BDNF and Synaptic Plasticity in Hippocampus......Page 695 HCN Channels......Page 696 Future Directions......Page 697 Further Reading......Page 698 Recent Results......Page 699 Clinical Phenotypes in the Epileptic Channelopathies......Page 700 SCN1A mutations......Page 701 KCNMA1 mutations......Page 702 Rationale......Page 703 Partial cortical deafferentation in cats......Page 704 Further Reading......Page 705 Epileptogenic Alterations in Excitable Neuronal Properties......Page 706 Mammalian cell lines......Page 708 In vivo Models......Page 709 Na+ channel mutations......Page 710 Gene mutations affecting GABA receptors or Cl- channels.